METHODS OF PRODUCING 6-CARBON CHEMICALS VIA CoA-DEPENDENT CARBON CHAIN ELONGATION ASSOCIATED WITH CARBON STORAGE

ABSTRACT

This document describes biochemical pathways for producing adipic acid, caprolactam, 6-aminohexanoic acid, 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid, hexamethylenediamine or 1,6-hexanediol by forming two terminal functional groups, comprised of carboxyl, amine or hydroxyl groups, in a C6; backbone substrate. These pathways, metabolic engineering and cultivation strategies described herein rely on CoA-dependent elongation enzymes or analogues enzymes associated with the carbon storage pathways from polyhydroxyalkanoate accumulating bacteria.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional application of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/106,124, filed Dec. 13, 2013, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/715,981, filed Dec. 14, 2012, which claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 61/576,401, filed Dec. 16, 2011. The disclosures of the applications are incorporated by reference in their entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This invention relates to methods for biosynthesizing one or more of adipic acid, 6-aminohexanoic acid, 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid, hexamethylenediamine, caprolactam, and 1,6-hexanediol using one or more isolated enzymes such as β-ketothiolases, dehydrogenases, reductases, hydratases, thioesterases, monooxygenases, and transaminases or using recombinant host cells expressing one or more such enzymes.

BACKGROUND

Nylons are polyamides that are generally synthesized by the condensation polymerisation of a diamine with a dicarboxylic acid. Similarly, Nylons may be produced by the condensation polymerization of lactams. A ubiquitous nylon is Nylon 6,6, which is produced by reaction of hexamethylenediamine (HMD) and adipic acid. Nylon 6 can be produced by a ring opening polymerization of caprolactam. Therefore, adipic acid, hexamethylenediamine and caprolactam are important intermediates in the production of Nylons (Anton & Baird, Polyamides Fibers, Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology, 2001).

Industrially, adipic acid and caprolactam are produced via air oxidation of cyclohexane. The air oxidation of cyclohexane produces, in a series of steps, a mixture of cyclohexanone (K) and cyclohexanol (A), designated as KA oil. Nitric acid oxidation of KA oil produces adipic acid (Musser, Adipic acid, Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2000). Caprolactam is produced from cyclohexanone via its oxime and subsequent acid rearrangement (Fuchs, Kieczka and Moran, Caprolactam, Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2000)

Industrially, hexamethylenediamine (HMD) is produced by hydrocyanation of C6 building block to adiponitrile, followed by hydrogenation to HMD (Herzog and Smiley, Hexamethylenediamine, Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2012).

Given a reliance on petrochemical feedstocks; biotechnology offers an alternative approach via biocatalysis. Biocatalysis is the use of biological catalysts, such as enzymes, to perform biochemical transformations of organic compounds.

Both bioderived feedstocks and petrochemical feedstocks are viable starting materials for the biocatalysis processes.

Accordingly, against this background, it is clear that there is a need for sustainable methods for producing one or more of adipic acid, caprolactam, 6-aminohexanoic acid, 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid, hexamethylenediamine, and 1,6-hexanediol (hereafter “C6 building blocks”) wherein the methods are biocatalyst based (Jang et al., Biotechnology & Bioengineering, 2012, 109(10), 2437-2459).

However, no wild-type prokaryote or eukaryote naturally overproduces or excretes C6 building blocks to the extracellular environment. Nevertheless, the metabolism of adipic acid and caprolactam has been reported (Ramsay et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 1986, 52(1), 152-156; and Kulkarni and Kanekar, Current Microbiology, 1998, 37, 191-194).

The dicarboxylic acid, adipic acid, is converted efficiently as a carbon source by a number of bacteria and yeasts via β-oxidation into central metabolites. β-oxidation of Coenzyme A (CoA) activated adipate to CoA activiated 3-oxoadipate facilitates further catabolism via, for example, pathways associated with aromatic substrate degradation.

The catabolism of 3-oxoadipyl-CoA to acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA by several bacteria and fungi has been characterized comprehensively (Harwood and Parales, Annual Review of Microbiology, 1996, 50, 553-590). Both adipate and 6-aminohexanoate are intermediates in the catabolism of caprolactam, finally degraded via 3-oxoadipyl-CoA to central metabolites.

Potential metabolic pathways have been suggested for producing adipic acid from biomass-sugar: (1) biochemically from glucose to cis, cis muconic acid via the ortho-cleavage aromatic degradation pathway, followed by chemical catalysis to adipic acid; (2) a reversible adipic acid degradation pathway via the condensation of succinyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA and (3) combining β-oxidation, a fatty acid synthase and ω-oxidation.

However, no information using these strategies has been reported (Jang et al., Biotechnology & Bioengineering, 2012, 109(10), 2437-2459).

The optimality principle states that microorganisms regulate their biochemical networks to support maximum biomass growth. Beyond the need for expressing heterologous pathways in a host organism, directing carbon flux towards C6 building blocks that serve as carbon sources rather than as biomass growth constituents, contradicts the optimality principle. For example, transferring the 1-butanol pathway from Clostridium species into other production strains has often fallen short by an order of magnitude compared to the production performance of native producers (Shen et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 2011, 77(9), 2905-2915).

The efficient synthesis of the six carbon aliphatic backbone precursor is a key consideration in synthesizing C6 building blocks prior to forming terminal functional groups, such as carboxyl, amine or hydroxyl groups, on the C6 aliphatic backbone.

SUMMARY

This document is based at least in part on the discovery that it is possible to construct biochemical pathways for producing a six carbon chain aliphatic backbone precursor, in which two functional groups, e.g., carboxyl, amine or hydroxyl, can be formed, leading to the synthesis of one or more of adipic acid, 6-aminohexanoic acid, 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid, hexamethylenediamine, caprolactam, and 1,6-hexanediol (hereafter “C6 building blocks”). Adipic acid and adipate, 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid and 6-hydroxyhexanoate, and 6-aminohexanoic and 6-aminohexanoate are used interchangeably herein to refer to the compound in any of its neutral or ionized forms, including any salt forms thereof. It is understood by those skilled in the art that the specific form will depend on pH. These pathways, metabolic engineering, and cultivation strategies described herein rely on CoA-dependent elongation enzymes or homologs thereof associated with the carbon storage pathways from polyhydroxyalkanoate accumulating bacteria.

In the face of the optimality principle, it surprisingly has been discovered that appropriate non-natural pathways, feedstocks, host microorganisms, attenuation strategies to the host's biochemical network, and cultivation strategies may be combined to efficiently produce C6 building blocks.

In some embodiments, the C6 aliphatic backbone for conversion to a C6 building block can be formed from acetyl-CoA via two cycles of CoA-dependent carbon chain elongation using either NADH or NADPH dependent enzymes. See FIG. 1 and FIG. 2.

In some embodiments, the enzyme in the CoA-dependent carbon chain elongation pathway generating the C6 aliphatic backbone catalyzes irreversible enzymatic steps.

In some embodiments, the terminal carboxyl groups can be enzymatically formed using a thioesterase, an aldehyde dehydrogenase, a 6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase, a 7-oxoheptanoate dehydrogenase, or a monooxgenase (e.g., in combination with an oxidoreductase and ferredoxin). See FIG. 3 and FIG. 4. The thioesterase can have at least 70% sequence identity to the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1.

In some embodiments, the terminal amine groups can be enzymatically formed using a ω-transaminase or a deacetylase. See FIG. 5 and FIG. 6. The co-transaminase can have at least 70% sequence identity to any one of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs. 7-12.

In some embodiments, the terminal hydroxyl group can be enzymatically formed using a monooxygenase (e.g., in combination with an oxidoreductase and ferredoxin), or an alcohol dehydrogenase. See FIG. 7 and FIG. 8. The monooxygenase can have at least 70% sequence identity to any one of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NO. 13-15.

In one aspect, this document features a method for biosynthesizing one or more products selected from the group consisting of adipic acid, 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid, 6-aminohexanoic acid, hexamethylenediamine, caprolactam, and 1,6-hexanediol. The method includes enzymatically synthesizing a six carbon chain aliphatic backbone (e.g., hexanoyl-CoA) and enzymatically forming, in one or more steps, two terminal functional groups selected from the group consisting of carboxyl, amine, and hydroxyl groups in the backbone to directly produce the product or producing the product in a subsequent step. The two terminal functional groups can be the same (e.g., hydroxyl or amine) or can be different (e.g., a terminal hydroxyl group and a terminal carboxyl group; or a terminal amine and a terminal carboxyl group).

Hexanoyl-CoA can be enzymatically synthesized from acetyl-CoA via two cycles of CoA-dependent carbon chain elongation using either NADH or NADPH dependent enzymes. Hexanoyl-CoA can be formed by conversion of hex-2-enoyl-CoA by an enoyl-CoA reductase classified under EC 1.3.1.44, EC 1.3.1.38, or EC 1.3.1.8 such as the gene product of ter or tdter. Hex-2-enoyl-CoA can be formed by conversion of (S) 3-hydroxyhexanoyl-CoA by a trans-2-enoyl-CoA hydratase classified under EC 4.2.1.17 or by conversion of (R) 3-hydroxyhexanoyl-CoA by a trans-2-enoyl-CoA hydratase classified under EC 4.2.1.119. The trans-2-enoyl-CoA hydratase can be the gene product of crt. (S) 3-hydroxyhexanoyl-CoA can be formed by conversion of 3-oxohexanoyl-CoA by a 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase classified under EC 1.1.1.35 such as the 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase encoded byfadB. The 3-oxohexanoyl-CoA can be formed by conversion of butanoyl-CoA by a β-ketothiolase classified under EC 2.3.1.16 such as that encoded by bktB. Butanoyl-CoA can be formed by conversion of crotonyl-CoA by an enoyl-CoA reductase classified under EC 1.3.1.44, EC 1.3.1.38, or EC 1.3.1.8. Crotonyl-CoA can be formed by conversion of (S) 3-hydroxybutanoyl-CoA by a trans-2-enoyl-CoA hydratase classified under EC 4.2.1.17. The (S) 3-hydroxybutanoyl-CoA can be formed by conversion of acetoacetyl-CoA by a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase classified under EC 1.1.1.157 such as a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase encoded by hbd. The acetoacetyl-CoA can be formed by conversion of acetyl-CoA by a β-ketothiolase classified under EC 2.3.1.9 such as that encoded by atoB or phaA. The acetoacetyl-CoA can be formed by conversion of malonyl-CoA by an acetoacetyl-CoA synthase classified under EC 2.3.1.194. The malonyl-CoA can be formed by conversion of acetyl-CoA by an acetyl-CoA carboxylase classified under EC 6.4.1.2.

The (R) 3-hydroxyhexanoyl-CoA can be formed by conversion of 3-oxohexanoyl-CoA by a 3-oxoacyl-CoA reductase classified under EC 1.1.1.100 such as that encoded by fabG . The crotonyl-CoA can be formed by conversion of (R) 3-hydroxybutanoyl-CoA by a trans-2-enoyl-CoA hydratase classified under EC 4.2.1.119. The trans-2-enoyl-CoA hydratase can be the gene product ofphaJ. (R) 3-hydroxybutanoyl-CoA can be formed by conversion of acetoacetyl-CoA by an acetoacyl-CoA reductase classified under EC 1.1.1.36 such as that encoded by phaB.

In any of the methods described herein, the method can include producing hexanoate by forming a first terminal carboxyl group in hexanoyl CoA using a thioesterase and an aldehyde dehydrogenase, or a thioesterase. The thioesterase can be encoded by YciA, tesB or Acot13 . The thioesterase can have at least 70% sequence identity to the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1.

Hexanoate can be produced by forming a first terminal carboxyl group in hexanal by an aldehyde dehydrogenase classified under EC 1.2.1.4. Hexanal can be formed by conversion of hexanoyl-CoA by a butanal dehydrogenase classified under EC 1.2.1.57.

A carboxylate reductase (e.g., in combination with a phosphopantetheinyl transferase) can form a terminal aldehyde group as an intermediate in forming the product. The carboxylate reductase can have at least 70% sequence identity to any one of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NO. 2-6.

In any of the methods described herein, the methods can include converting hexanoate to adipic acid, 6-aminohexanoic acid, hexamethylenediamine, 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid, 8 caprolactam or 1,6 hexanediol with one or more enzymatic conversions, wherein one of the enzymatic conversions introduces the second terminal functional group. The method can include converting hexanoate to 6-hydroxyhexanoate using a monooxygenase such as from the family CYP153 such as CYP153A. 6-hydroxyhexanoate can be converted to adipate semialdehyde using (i) an alcohol dehydrogenase such as encoded by YMR318C, a 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase such as encoded by cpnD or a 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase such as encoded by gabD (ii) a 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase such as that encoded by ChnD, or (iii) a monooxgenase in the cytochrome P450 family.

In any of the methods described herein, adipic acid can be produced by forming the second terminal functional group in adipate semialdehyde using (i) an aldehyde dehydrogenase classified under EC 1.2.1.3, (ii) a 6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase classified under EC 1.2.1.63 such as that encoded by ChnE or a 7-oxoheptanoate dehydrogenase classified under EC 1.2.1.— (e.g., the gene product of ThnG) or iii) a monooxgenase in the cytochrome P450 family.

In any of the methods described herein, 6-aminohexanoic acid can be produced by forming the second terminal functional group in adipate semialdehyde using a ω-transaminase classified under EC 2.61.18, EC 2.6.1.19, EC 2.6.1.29, EC 2.6.1.48, or EC 2.6.1.82.

In any of the methods described herein, caprolactam can be produced from 6-aminohexanoic acid using a lactamase classified under EC 3.5.2.—. The amide bond associated with caprolactam is produced from a terminal carboxyl group and terminal amine group of 6-aminohexanoate.

In any of the methods described herein, hexamethylenediamine can be produced by forming a second terminal functional group in (i) 6-aminohexanal using a ω-transaminase classified under EC 2.61.18, EC 2.6.1.19, EC 2.6.1.29, EC 2.6.1.48 or EC 2.6.1.82 or in (ii) N6-acetyl-1,6-diaminohexane using a deacetylase classified, for example, under EC 3.5.1.17.

In any of the methods described herein, 1,6 hexanediol can be produced by forming the second terminal functional group in 6-hydroxyhexanal using an alcohol dehydrogenase classified under EC 1.1.1.— (e.g., 1, 2, 21, or 184) such as that encoded by YMR318C, YqhD or CAA81612.1.

In some embodiments, the biological feedstock can be or can derive from, monosaccharides, disaccharides, lignocellulose, hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin, levulinic acid and formic acid, triglycerides, glycerol, fatty acids, agricultural waste, condensed distillers' solubles, or municipal waste.

In some embodiments, the non-biological feedstock can be or can derive from natural gas, syngas, CO₂/H₂, methanol, ethanol, benzoate, non-volatile residue (NVR) or a caustic wash waste stream from cyclohexane oxidation processes, or terephthalic acid/isophthalic acid mixture waste streams.

In some embodiments, the host microorganism is a prokaryote. For example, the prokaryote can be from the bacterial genus Escherichia such as Escherichia coli; from the bacterial genus Clostridia such as Clostridium ljungdahlii, Clostridium autoethanogenum or Clostridium kluyveri; from the bacterial genus Corynebacteria such as Corynebacterium glutamicum; from the bacterial genus Cupriavidus such as Cupriavidus necator or Cupriavidus metallidurans; from the bacterial genus Pseudomonas such as Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas putida or Pseudomonas oleavorans; from the bacterial genus Delftia such as Delftia acidovorans; from the bacterial genus Bacillus such as Bacillus subtillis; from the bacterial genus Lactobacillus such as Lactobacillus delbrueckii; or from the bacterial genus Lactococcus such as Lactococcus lactis. Such prokaryotes also can be sources of genes for constructing recombinant host cells described herein that are capable of producing C6 building blocks.

In some embodiments, the host microorganism is a eukaryote (e.g., a fungus such as a yeast). For example, the eukaryote can be from the fungal genus Aspergillus such as Aspergillus niger; from the yeast genus Saccharomyces such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae; from the yeast genus Pichia such as Pichia pastoris; from the yeast genus Yarrowia such as Yarrowia lipolytica; from the yeast genus Issatchenkia such as Issathenkia orientalis; from the yeast genus Debaryomyces such as Debaryomyces hansenii; from the yeast genus Arxula such as Arxula adenoinivorans; or from the yeast genus Kluyveromyces such as Kluyveromyces lactis. Such eukaryotes also can be sources of genes for constructing recombinant host cells described herein that are capable of producing C6 building blocks.

In some embodiments, the host microorganism's tolerance to high concentrations of one or more C6 building blocks is improved through continuous cultivation in a selective environment.

In some embodiments, the host microorganism's biochemical network is attenuated or augmented to (1) ensure the intracellular availability of acetyl-CoA, (2) create an NADH or NADPH imbalance that may only be balanced via the formation of one or more C6 building blocks, (3) prevent degradation of central metabolites, central precursors leading to and including C6 building blocks and (4) ensure efficient efflux from the cell.

In some embodiments, a non-cyclical cultivation strategy is used to achieve anaerobic, micro-aerobic, or aerobic cultivation conditions.

In some embodiments, a cyclical cultivation strategy is used to alternate between anaerobic and aerobic cultivation conditions.

In some embodiments, the cultivation strategy includes limiting nutrients, such as limiting nitrogen, phosphate or oxygen.

In some embodiments, one or more C6 building blocks are produced by a single type of microorganism, e.g., a recombinant host containing one or more exogenous nucleic acids, using a non-cyclical or cyclical fermentation strategy.

In some embodiments, one or more C6 building blocks are produced by co-culturing more than one type of microorganism, e.g., two or more different recombinant hosts, with each host containing a particular set of exogenous nucleic acids.

In some embodiments, one or more C6 building blocks can be produced by successive fermentations, where the broth or centrate from the preceding fermentation can be fed to a succession of fermentations as a source of feedstock, central metabolite or central precursor; finally producing the C6 building block.

This document also features a recombinant host comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding, for example, one or more of a formate dehydrogenase, enoyl-CoA reductase, trans-2-enoyl-CoA hydratase, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, β-ketothiolase, acetoacyl-CoA reductase, acetyl-CoA synthetase, acetyl-CoA carboxylase, a malic enzyme, puridine nucleotide transhydrogenase, glyceraldehyde-3P-dehydrogenase, thioesterase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, monooxygenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase, 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, 6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase, 7 -oxoheptanoate dehydrogenase, ω-transaminase, propionyl-CoA synthetase, and a carboxylate reductase, wherein said host comprises one or more deficiencies, for example, in glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, acetate kinase, an enzyme degrading pyruvate to lactate such as lactate dehydrogenase, enzymes mediating the degradation of phophoenolpyruvate to succinate such as menaquinol-fumarate oxidoreductase, alcohol dehydrogenase, pyruvate decarboxylase, 2-oxoacid decarboxylase, triose phosphate isomerase, or a NADH-specific glutamate dehydrogenase.

In one aspect, this document features a recombinant host that includes at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding (i) a β-ketothiolase or an acetyl-CoA carboxylase and an acetoacetyl-CoA synthase, (ii) a 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase or a 3-oxoacyl-CoA reductase, (iii) an enoyl-CoA hydratase, and (iv) a trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase, where the host produces hexanoyl-CoA. The host further can include one or more of a thioesterase, an aldehyde dehydrogenase, or a butanal dehydrogenase, wherein the host produces hexanal or hexanoate.

A recombinant producing hexanal or hexanoate further can include one or more of a monooxygenase, an alcohol dehydrogenase, an aldehyde dehydrogenase, a 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase, a 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase, a 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, a 6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase, or a 7-oxoheptanoate dehydrogenase, wherein the host produces adipic acid or adipate semialdehyde.

A recombinant producing hexanal or hexanoate further can include one or more of monooxygenase, a transaminase, a 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase, a 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase, a 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, and an alcohol dehydrogenase, wherein the host produces 6-aminohexanoate. The host further can include a lactamase and produce caprolactam.

A recombinant producing hexanal or hexanoate further can include a monooxygenase, the host producing 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid.

A recombinant host producing hexanal, hexanoate, 6-hydroxyhexanoate, or 6-aminohexanoate further can include one or more of a carboxylate reductase, a ω-transaminase, a deacetylase, a N-acetyl transferase, or an alcohol dehydrogenase, and produce hexamethylenediamine.

A recombinant host producing 6-hydroxyhexanoate further can include a carboxylate reductase or an alcohol dehydrogenase, the host producing 1,6-hexanediol.

Any of the recombinant hosts described herein further can include one or more of the following attenuated enzymes: a polyhydroxyalkanoate synthase, an acetyl-CoA thioesterase, a phosphotransacetylase forming acetate, an acetate kinase, a lactate dehydrogenase, a menaquinol-fumarate oxidoreductase, a 2-oxoacid decarboxylase producing isobutanol, an alcohol dehydrogenase forming ethanol, a triose phosphate isomerase, a pyruvate decarboxylase, a glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, NADH-consuming transhydrogenase, an NADH-specific glutamate dehydrogenase, a NADH/NADPH-utilizing glutamate dehydrogenase, a pimeloyl-CoA dehydrogenase; an acyl-CoA dehydrogenase accepting C6 building blocks and central precursors as substrates; a butaryl-CoA dehydrogenase; or an adipyl-CoA synthetase.

Any of the recombinant hosts described herein further can overexpress one or more genes encoding: an acetyl-CoA synthetase, a 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase; a transketolase; a puridine nucleotide transhydrogenase; a glyceraldehyde-3P-dehydrogenase; a malic enzyme; a glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase; a glucose dehydrogenase; a fructose 1,6 diphosphatase; a L-alanine dehydrogenase; a L-glutamate dehydrogenase; a formate dehydrogenase; a L-glutamine synthetase; a diamine transporter; a dicarboxylate transporter; and/or a multidrug transporter.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention pertains. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used to practice the invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting.

The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. The word “comprising” in the claims may be replaced by “consisting essentially of” or with “consisting of,” according to standard practice in patent law.

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic of an exemplary biochemical pathway leading to hexanoyl-CoA using NADH-dependent enzymes and with acetyl-CoA as a central metabolite.

FIG. 2 is a schematic of an exemplary biochemical pathway leading to hexanoyl-CoA using NADPH-dependent enzymes and with acetyl-CoA as a central metabolite.

FIG. 3 is a schematic of exemplary biochemical pathways leading to hexanoate using hexanoyl-CoA as a central precursor.

FIG. 4 is a schematic of exemplary biochemical pathways leading to adipic acid using hexanoate as a central precursor.

FIG. 5 is a schematic of an exemplary biochemical pathway leading to 6-aminhexanoate using hexanoate as a central precursor and a schematic of an exemplary biochemical pathway leading to caprolactam from 6-aminohexanoate.

FIG. 6 is a schematic of exemplary biochemical pathways leading to hexamethylenediamine using 6-aminohexanoate, 6-hydroxyhexanoate, or adipate semialdehyde as a central precursor.

FIG. 7 is a schematic of an exemplary biochemical pathway leading to 6-hydroxyhexanoate using hexanoate as a central precursor.

FIG. 8 is a schematic of an exemplary biochemical pathway leading to 1,6-hexanediol using 6-hydroxyhexanoate as a central precursor.

FIG. 9 contains the amino acid sequences of an Escherichia coli thioesterase encoded by tesB (see GenBank Accession No. AAA24665.1, SEQ ID NO: 1), a Mycobacterium marinum carboxylate reductase (see Genbank Accession No. ACC40567.1, SEQ ID NO: 2), a Mycobacterium smegmatis carboxylate reductase (see Genbank Accession No. ABK71854.1, SEQ ID NO: 3), a Segniliparus rugosus carboxylate reductase (see Genbank Accession No. EFV11917.1, SEQ ID NO: 4), a Mycobacterium massiliense carboxylate reductase (see Genbank Accession No. EIV11143.1, SEQ ID NO: 5), a Segniliparus rotundus carboxylate reductase (see Genbank Accession No. ADG98140.1, SEQ ID NO: 6), a Chromobacterium violaceum ω-transaminase (see Genbank Accession No. AAQ59697.1, SEQ ID NO: 7), a Pseudomonas aeruginosa ω-transaminase (see Genbank Accession No. AAG08191.1, SEQ ID NO: 8), a Pseudomonas syringae ω-transaminase (see Genbank Accession No. AAY39893.1, SEQ ID NO: 9), a Rhodobacter sphaeroides ω-transaminase (see Genbank Accession No. ABA81135.1, SEQ ID NO: 10), an Escherichia coli ω-transaminase (see Genbank Accession No. AAA57874.1, SEQ ID NO: 11), a Vibrio Fluvialis ω-transaminase (See Genbank Accession No. AEA39183.1, SEQ ID NO: 12); a Polaromonas sp. JS666 monooxygenase (see Genbank Accession No. ABE47160.1, SEQ ID NO:13), a Mycobacterium sp. HXN-1500 monooxygenase (see Genbank Accession No. CAH04396.1, SEQ ID NO:14), a Mycobacterium austroafricanum monooxygenase (see Genbank Accession No. ACJ06772.1, SEQ ID NO:15), a Polaromonas sp. JS666 oxidoreductase (see Genbank Accession No. ABE47159.1, SEQ ID NO:16), a Mycobacterium sp. HXN-1500 oxidoreductase (see Genbank Accession No. CAH04397.1, SEQ ID NO:17), a Polaromonas sp. JS666 ferredoxin (see Genbank Accession No. ABE47158.1, SEQ ID NO:18), a Mycobacterium sp. HXN-1500 ferredoxin (see Genbank Accession No. CAH04398.1, SEQ ID NO:19), a Bacillus subtilis phosphopantetheinyl transferase (see Genbank Accession No. CAA44858.1, SEQ ID NO:20), and a Nocardia sp. NRRL 5646 phosphopantetheinyl transferase (see Genbank Accession No. ABI83656.1, SEQ ID NO:21).

FIG. 10 is a bar graph of the relative absorbance at 412 nm of released CoA as a measure of the activity of a thioesterase for converting hexanoyl-CoA to hexanoate relative to the empty vector control.

FIG. 11 is a bar graph summarizing the change in absorbance at 340 nm after 20 minutes, which is a measure of the consumption of NADPH and the activity of the carboxylate reductases of the enzyme only controls (no substrate).

FIG. 12 is a bar graph of the change in absorbance at 340 nm after 20 minutes, which is a measure of the consumption of NADPH and the activity of carboxylate reductases for converting adipate to adipate semialdehyde relative to the empty vector control.

FIG. 13 is a bar graph of the change in absorbance at 340 nm after 20 minutes, which is a measure of the consumption of NADPH and the activity of carboxylate reductases for converting 6-hydroxyhexanoate to 6-hydroxyhexanal relative to the empty vector control.

FIG. 14 is a bar graph of the change in absorbance at 340 nm after 20 minutes, which is a measure of the consumption of NADPH and the activity of carboxylate reductases for converting N6-acetyl-6-aminohexanoate to N6-acetyl-6-aminohexanal relative to the empty vector control.

FIG. 15 is a bar graph of the change in absorbance at 340 nm after 20 minutes, which is a measure of the consumption of NADPH and activity of carboxylate reductases for converting adipate semialdehyde to hexanedial relative to the empty vector control.

FIG. 16 is a bar graph summarizing the percent conversion after 4 hours of pyruvate to L-alanine (mol/mol) as a measure of the ω-transaminase activity of the enzyme only controls (no substrate).

FIG. 17 is a bar graph of the percent conversion after 24 hours of pyruvate to L-alanine (mol/mol) as a measure of the ω-transaminase activity for converting 6-aminohexanoate to adipate semialdehyde relative to the empty vector control.

FIG. 18 is a bar graph of the percent conversion after 4 hours of L-alanine to pyruvate (mol/mol) as a measure of the ω-transaminase activity for converting adipate semialdehyde to 6-aminohexanoate relative to the empty vector control.

FIG. 19 is a bar graph of the percent conversion after 4 hours of pyruvate to L-alanine (mol/mol) as a measure of the ω-transaminase activity for converting hexamethylenediamine to 6-aminohexanal relative to the empty vector control.

FIG. 20 is a bar graph of the percent conversion after 4 hours of pyruvate to L-alanine (mol/mol) as a measure of the ω-transaminase activity for converting N6-acetyl-1,6-diaminohexane to N6-acetyl-6-aminohexanal relative to the empty vector control.

FIG. 21 is a bar graph of the percent conversion after 4 hours of pyruvate to L-alanine (mol/mol) as a measure of the ω-transaminase activity for converting 6-aminohexanol to 6-oxohexanol relative to the empty vector control.

FIG. 22 is a bar graph of the change in peak area for 6-hydroxyhexanoate as determined via LC-MS, as a measure of the monooxygenase activity for converting hexanoate to 6-hydroxyhexanoate relative to the empty vector control.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In general, this document provides enzymes, non-natural pathways, cultivation strategies, feedstocks, host microorganisms and attenuations to the host's biochemical network, which generates a six carbon chain aliphatic backbone from central metabolites into which two terminal functional groups may be formed leading to the synthesis of one or more of adipic acid, caprolactam, 6-aminohexanoic acid, 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid, hexamethylenediamine or 1,6-hexanediol (referred to as “C6 building blocks” herein). As used herein, the term “central precursor” is used to denote any metabolite in any metabolic pathway shown herein leading to the synthesis of a C6 building block. The term “central metabolite” is used herein to denote a metabolite that is produced in all microorganisms to support growth.

Host microorganisms described herein can include endogenous pathways that can be manipulated such that one or more C6 building blocks can be produced. In an endogenous pathway, the host microorganism naturally expresses all of the enzymes catalyzing the reactions within the pathway. A host microorganism containing an engineered pathway does not naturally express all of the enzymes catalyzing the reactions within the pathway but has been engineered such that all of the enzymes within the pathway are expressed in the host.

The term “exogenous” as used herein with reference to a nucleic acid (or a protein) and a host refers to a nucleic acid that does not occur in (and cannot be obtained from) a cell of that particular type as it is found in nature or a protein encoded by such a nucleic acid. Thus, a non-naturally-occurring nucleic acid is considered to be exogenous to a host once in the host. It is important to note that non-naturally-occurring nucleic acids can contain nucleic acid subsequences or fragments of nucleic acid sequences that are found in nature provided the nucleic acid as a whole does not exist in nature. For example, a nucleic acid molecule containing a genomic DNA sequence within an expression vector is non-naturally-occurring nucleic acid, and thus is exogenous to a host cell once introduced into the host, since that nucleic acid molecule as a whole (genomic DNA plus vector DNA) does not exist in nature. Thus, any vector, autonomously replicating plasmid, or virus (e.g., retrovirus, adenovirus, or herpes virus) that as a whole does not exist in nature is considered to be non-naturally-occurring nucleic acid. It follows that genomic DNA fragments produced by PCR or restriction endonuclease treatment as well as cDNAs are considered to be non-naturally-occurring nucleic acid since they exist as separate molecules not found in nature. It also follows that any nucleic acid containing a promoter sequence and polypeptide-encoding sequence (e.g., cDNA or genomic DNA) in an arrangement not found in nature is non-naturally-occurring nucleic acid. A nucleic acid that is naturally-occurring can be exogenous to a particular host microorganism. For example, an entire chromosome isolated from a cell of yeast x is an exogenous nucleic acid with respect to a cell of yeast y once that chromosome is introduced into a cell of yeast y.

In contrast, the term “endogenous” as used herein with reference to a nucleic acid (e.g., a gene) (or a protein) and a host refers to a nucleic acid (or protein) that does occur in (and can be obtained from) that particular host as it is found in nature. Moreover, a cell “endogenously expressing” a nucleic acid (or protein) expresses that nucleic acid (or protein) as does a host of the same particular type as it is found in nature. Moreover, a host “endogenously producing” or that “endogenously produces” a nucleic acid, protein, or other compound produces that nucleic acid, protein, or compound as does a host of the same particular type as it is found in nature.

For example, depending on the host and the compounds produced by the host, one or more of the following enzymes may be expressed in the host in addition to (i) a β-ketothioase or an acetyl-CoA carboxylase and acetoacetyl-CoA synthase, (ii) a 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase or a 3-oxoacyl-CoA reductase, (iii) an enoyl-CoA hydratase, and (iv) a trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase: a thioesterase, an aldehyde dehydrogenase, a butanal dehydrogenase, a monooxygenase, an alcohol dehydrogenase, a 6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase, a 7-oxoheptanoate dehydrogenase, a co transaminase, a 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase, a 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase, a 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, a carboxylate reductase, a deacetylase, or an N-acetyl transferase. In recombinant hosts expressing a carboxylate reductase, a phosphopantetheinyl transferase also can be expressed as it enhances activity of the carboxylate reductase. In recombinant hosts expressing a monooxygenase, an electron transfer chain protein such as an oxidoreductase or ferredoxin polypeptide also can be expressed.

In some embodiments, a recombinant host can include at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a β-ketothioase or an acetyl-CoA carboxylase and acetoacetyl-CoA synthase, a β-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase or a 3-oxoacyl-CoA reductase, an enoyl-CoA hydratase, and a trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase, and produce hexanoyl-CoA. Such a host further can include one or more of (e.g., two or three of) a thioesterase, an aldehyde dehydrogenase, or a butanal dehydrogenase, and produce hexanal or hexanoate.

A recombinant host producing hexanal or hexanoate further can include one or more of a monooxygenase, an alcohol dehydrogenase, an aldehyde dehydrogenase, a 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase, a 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase, a 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, a 6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase, or a 7-oxoheptanoate dehydrogenase, and produce adipic acid or adipate semialdehyde. For example, a recombinant host further can include a monooxygenase and produce adipic acid or adipate semialdehyde. As another example, a recombinant host further can include (i) a monooxygenase, (ii) an alcohol dehydrogenase, a 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase, a 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase or a 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase and (iii) an aldehyde dehydrogenase, a 6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase, or a 7-oxoheptanoate dehydrogenase, and produce adipic acid.

A recombinant host producing hexanal or hexanoate further can include one or more of a monooxygenase, a transaminase, a 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase, a 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase, a 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, and an alcohol dehydrogenase, and produce 6-aminohexanoate. For example, a recombinant host further can include each of a monooxygenase, a transaminase, and a 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase.

A recombinant host producing hexanal or hexanoate further can include a monooxygenase, and produce 6-hydroxyheptanoic acid.

A recombinant host producing 6-aminohexanoate, 6-hydroxyhexanoate, or adipate semialdehyde further can include one or more of a carboxylate reductase, a ω-transaminase, a deacetylase, a N-acetyl transferase, or an alcohol dehydrogenase, and produce hexamethylenediamine. In some embodiments, a recombinant host further can include each of a carboxylate reductase, a ω-transaminase, a deacetylase, and an N-acetyl transferase. In some embodiments, a recombinant host further can include a carboxylate reductase and a ω-transaminase. In some embodiments, a recombinant host further can include a carboxylate reductase, a ω-transaminase, and an alcohol dehydrogenase.

A recombinant host producing 6-hydroxyhexanoic acid further can include one or more of a carboxylate reductase and an alcohol dehydrogenase, and produce 1,6-hexanediol.

Within an engineered pathway, the enzymes can be from a single source, i.e., from one species or genera, or can be from multiple sources, i.e., different species or genera. Nucleic acids encoding the enzymes described herein have been identified from various organisms and are readily available in publicly available databases such as GenBank or EMBL.

Any of the enzymes described herein that can be used for production of one or more C6 building blocks can have at least 70% sequence identity (homology) (e.g., at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) to the amino acid sequence of the corresponding wild-type enzyme. For example, a thioesterase described herein can have at least 70% sequence identity (homology) (e.g., at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) to the amino acid sequence of an Escherichia coli thioesterase encoded by tesB (see GenBank Accession No. AAA24665.1, SEQ ID NO: 1). See FIG. 9.

For example, a carboxylate reductase described herein can have at least 70% sequence identity (homology) (e.g., at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) to the amino acid sequence of a Mycobacterium marinum (see Genbank Accession No. ACC40567.1, SEQ ID NO: 2), a Mycobacterium smegmatis (see Genbank Accession No. ABK71854.1, SEQ ID NO: 3), a Segniliparus rugosus (see Genbank Accession No. EFV11917.1, SEQ ID NO: 4), a Mycobacterium massiliense (see Genbank Accession No. EIV 11143.1, SEQ ID NO: 5), or a Segniliparus rotundus (see Genbank Accession No. ADG98140.1, SEQ ID NO: 6) carboxylate reductase. See, FIG. 9.

For example, a co-transaminase described herein can have at least 70% sequence identity (homology) (e.g., at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) to the amino acid sequence of a Chromobacterium violaceum (see Genbank Accession No. AAQ59697.1, SEQ ID NO: 7), a Pseudomonas aeruginosa (see Genbank Accession No. AAG08191.1, SEQ ID NO: 8), a Pseudomonas syringae (see Genbank Accession No. AAY39893.1, SEQ ID NO: 9), a Rhodobacter sphaeroides (see Genbank Accession No. ABA81135.1, SEQ ID NO: 10), an Escherichia coli (see Genbank Accession No. AAA57874.1, SEQ ID NO: 11), or a Vibrio fluvialis (see Genbank Accession No. AEA39183.1, SEQ ID NO: 12) ω-transaminase. Some of these ω-transaminases are diamine ω-transaminases. See, FIG. 9.

For example, a monooxygenase described herein can have at least 70% sequence identity (homology) (e.g., at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) to the amino acid sequence of a Polaromonas sp. JS666 monooxygenase (see Genbank Accession No. ABE47160.1, SEQ ID NO:13), a Mycobacterium sp. HXN-1500 monooxygenase (see Genbank Accession No. CAH04396.1, SEQ ID NO:14), or a Mycobacterium austroafricanum monooxygenase (see Genbank Accession No. ACJ06772.1, SEQ ID NO:15). See, FIG. 9. For example, an oxidoreductase described herein can have at least 70% sequence identity (homology) (e.g., at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) to the amino acid sequence of a Polaromonas sp. JS666 oxidoreductase (see Genbank Accession No. ABE47159.1, SEQ ID NO:16) or a Mycobacterium sp. HXN-1500 oxidoreductase (see Genbank Accession No. CAH04397.1, SEQ ID NO:17). See, FIG. 9.

For example, a ferredoxin polypeptide described herein can have at least 70% sequence identity (homology) (e.g., at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) to the amino acid sequence of a Polaromonas sp. JS666 ferredoxin (see Genbank Accession No. ABE47158.1, SEQ ID NO:18) or a Mycobacterium sp. HXN-1500 ferredoxin (see Genbank Accession No. CAH04398.1, SEQ ID NO:19). See, FIG. 9.

For example, a phosphopantetheinyl transferase described herein can have at least 70% sequence identity (homology) (e.g., at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%) to the amino acid sequence of a Bacillus subtilis phosphopantetheinyl transferase (see Genbank Accession No. CAA44858.1, SEQ ID NO: 20) or a Nocardia sp. NRRL 5646 phosphopantetheinyl transferase (see Genbank Accession No. ABI83656.1, SEQ ID NO:21). See, FIG. 9.

The percent identity (homology) between two amino acid sequences can be determined as follows. First, the amino acid sequences are aligned using the BLAST 2

Sequences (B12seq) program from the stand-alone version of BLASTZ containing BLASTP version 2.0.14. This stand-alone version of BLASTZ can be obtained from Fish & Richardson's web site (e.g., www.fr.com/blast/) or the U.S. government's National Center for Biotechnology Information web site (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov). Instructions explaining how to use the B12seq program can be found in the readme file accompanying BLASTZ. B12seq performs a comparison between two amino acid sequences using the BLASTP algorithm. To compare two amino acid sequences, the options of B12seq are set as follows: -i is set to a file containing the first amino acid sequence to be compared (e.g., C:\seq1.txt); -j is set to a file containing the second amino acid sequence to be compared (e.g., C:\seq2.txt); -p is set to blastp; -o is set to any desired file name (e.g., C:\output.txt); and all other options are left at their default setting. For example, the following command can be used to generate an output file containing a comparison between two amino acid sequences: C:\B12seq-i c:\seq1.txt -j c:\seq2.txt -p blastp -o c:\output.txt. If the two compared sequences share homology (identity), then the designated output file will present those regions of homology as aligned sequences. If the two compared sequences do not share homology (identity), then the designated output file will not present aligned sequences. Similar procedures can be following for nucleic acid sequences except that blastn is used.

Once aligned, the number of matches is determined by counting the number of positions where an identical amino acid residue is presented in both sequences. The percent identity (homology) is determined by dividing the number of matches by the length of the full-length polypeptide amino acid sequence followed by multiplying the resulting value by 100. It is noted that the percent identity (homology) value is rounded to the nearest tenth. For example, 78.11, 78.12, 78.13, and 78.14 is rounded down to 78.1, while 78.15, 78.16, 78.17, 78.18, and 78.19 is rounded up to 78.2. It also is noted that the length value will always be an integer.

It will be appreciated that a number of nucleic acids can encode a polypeptide having a particular amino acid sequence. The degeneracy of the genetic code is well known to the art; i.e., for many amino acids, there is more than one nucleotide triplet that serves as the codon for the amino acid. For example, codons in the coding sequence for a given enzyme can be modified such that optimal expression in a particular species (e.g., bacteria or fungus) is obtained, using appropriate codon bias tables for that species.

Functional fragments of any of the enzymes described herein can also be used in the methods of the document. The term “functional fragment” as used herein refers to a peptide fragment of a protein that has at least 25% (e.g., at least: 30%; 40%; 50%; 60%; 70%; 75%; 80%; 85%; 90%; 95%; 98%; 99%; 100%; or even greater than 100%) of the activity of the corresponding mature, full-length, wild-type protein. The functional fragment can generally, but not always, be comprised of a continuous region of the protein, wherein the region has functional activity.

This document also provides (i) functional variants of the enzymes used in the methods of the document and (ii) functional variants of the functional fragments described above. Functional variants of the enzymes and functional fragments can contain additions, deletions, or substitutions relative to the corresponding wild-type sequences. Enzymes with substitutions will generally have not more than 50 (e.g., not more than one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, 12, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, or 50) amino acid substitutions (e.g., conservative substitutions). This applies to any of the enzymes described herein and functional fragments. A conservative substitution is a substitution of one amino acid for another with similar characteristics. Conservative substitutions include substitutions within the following groups: valine, alanine and glycine; leucine, valine, and isoleucine; aspartic acid and glutamic acid; asparagine and glutamine; serine, cysteine, and threonine; lysine and arginine; and phenylalanine and tyrosine. The nonpolar hydrophobic amino acids include alanine, leucine, isoleucine, valine, proline, phenylalanine, tryptophan and methionine. The polar neutral amino acids include glycine, serine, threonine, cysteine, tyrosine, asparagine and glutamine. The positively charged (basic) amino acids include arginine, lysine and histidine. The negatively charged (acidic) amino acids include aspartic acid and glutamic acid. Any substitution of one member of the above-mentioned polar, basic or acidic groups by another member of the same group can be deemed a conservative substitution. By contrast, a nonconservative substitution is a substitution of one amino acid for another with dissimilar characteristics.

Deletion variants can lack one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 amino acid segments (of two or more amino acids) or non-contiguous single amino acids. Additions (addition variants) include fusion proteins containing: (a) any of the enzymes described herein or a fragment thereof; and (b) internal or terminal (C or N) irrelevant or heterologous amino acid sequences. In the context of such fusion proteins, the term “heterologous amino acid sequences” refers to an amino acid sequence other than (a). A heterologous sequence can be, for example a sequence used for purification of the recombinant protein (e.g., FLAG, polyhistidine (e.g., hexahistidine), hemagglutinin (HA), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), or maltosebinding protein (MBP)). Heterologous sequences also can be proteins useful as detectable markers, for example, luciferase, green fluorescent protein (GFP), or chloramphenicol acetyl transferase (CAT). In some embodiments, the fusion protein contains a signal sequence from another protein. In certain host cells (e.g., yeast host cells), expression and/or secretion of the target protein can be increased through use of a heterologous signal sequence. In some embodiments, the fusion protein can contain a carrier (e.g., KLH) useful, e.g., in eliciting an immune response for antibody generation) or ER or Golgi apparatus retention signals. Heterologous sequences can be of varying length and in some cases can be a longer sequences than the full-length target proteins to which the heterologous sequences are attached.

Engineered hosts can naturally express none or some (e.g., one or more, two or more, three or more, four or more, five or more, or six or more) of the enzymes of the pathways described herein. Thus, a pathway within an engineered host can include all exogenous enzymes, or can include both endogenous and exogenous enzymes. Endogenous genes of the engineered hosts also can be disrupted to prevent the formation of undesirable metabolites or prevent the loss of intermediates in the pathway through other enzymes acting on such intermediates. Engineered hosts can be referred to as recombinant hosts or recombinant host cells. As described herein recombinant hosts can include nucleic acids encoding one or more of a dehydrogenase, a β-ketothiolase, a acetoacetyl-CoA synthase, a carboxylase, a reductase, a hydratase, a thioesterase, a monooxygenase, a thioesterase, or transaminase as described herein.

In addition, the production of C6 building blocks can be performed in vitro using the isolated enzymes described herein, using a lysate (e.g., a cell lysate) from a host microorganism as a source of the enzymes, or using a plurality of lysates from different host microorganisms as the source of the enzymes.

The reactions of the pathways described herein can be performed in one or more host strains (a) naturally expressing one or more relevant enzymes,(b) genetically engineered to express one or more relevant enzymes, or (c) naturally expressing one or more relevant enzymes and genetically engineered to express one or more relevant enzymes. Alternatively, relevant enzymes can be extracted from of the above types of host cells and used in a purified or semi-purified form. Moreover, such extracts include lysates (e.g. cell lysates) that can be used as sources of relevant enzymes. In the methods provided by the document, all the steps can be performed in host cells, all the steps can be performed using extracted enzymes, or some of the steps can be performed in cells and others can be performed using extracted enzymes.

Enzymes generating the C6 aliphatic backbone for conversion to C6 building blocks

As depicted in FIG. 1 and FIG. 2, the C6 aliphatic backbone for conversion to C6 building blocks can be formed from acetyl-CoA via two cycles of CoA-dependent carbon chain elongation using either NADH or NADPH dependent enzymes.

In some embodiments, a CoA-dependent carbon chain elongation cycle comprises a β-ketothiolase or an acetyl-CoA carboxylase and an acetoacetyl-CoA synthase, a 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase or 3-oxoacyl-CoA reductase, an enoyl-CoA hydratase and a trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase. A β-ketothiolase can convert acetyl-CoA to acetoacetyl-CoA and can convert butanoyl-CoA to 3-oxohexanoyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase can convert acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA. An acetoacetyl-CoA synthase can convert malonyl-CoA to acetoacetyl-CoA. A 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase can convert acetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutanoyl CoA. A 3-oxoacyl-CoA reductase/3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase can convert 3-oxohexanoyl-CoA to 3-hydroxyhexanoyl-CoA. An enoyl-CoA hydratase can convert 3-hydroxybutanoyl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA and can convert 3-hydroxyhexanoyl-CoA to hex-2-enoyl-CoA. A trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase can convert crotonyl-CoA to butanoyl-CoA and can convert hex-2-enoyl-CoA to hexanoyl-CoA.

In some embodiments, a β-ketothiolase may be classified under EC 2.3.1.9, such as the gene product of atoB or phaA, or classified under EC 2.3.1.16, such as the gene product of bktB. The β-ketothiolase encoded by bktB from Cupriavidus necator accepts acetyl-CoA and butanoyl-CoA as substrates, forming the CoA-activated C6 aliphatic backbone (see, e.g., Haywood et al., FEMS Microbiology Letters, 1988, 52:91-96; Slater et al., J. Bacteriol., 1998, 180(8):1979-1987). The β-ketothiolase encoded by atoB or phaA accepts acetyl-CoA as substrates, forming butanoyl-CoA (see, Haywood et al., 1988, supra; Slater et al., 1998, supra).

In some embodiments, an acetyl-CoA carboxylase can be classified, for example, under EC 6.4.1.2. Conversion of acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA by an acetyl-CoA carboxylase has been shown to increase the rate of fatty acid synthesis (Davis et al., J. Biol. Chem., 2000, 275(37), 28593-28598).

In some embodiments, an acetoacetyl-CoA synthase may be classified under EC 2.3.1.194. It has been demonstrated that acetoacetyl-CoA synthase may be used as an irreversible substitute for the gene product of phaA in the carbon chain elongation associated with polyhydroxybutyrate synthesis (Matsumoto et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem., 2011, 75(2), 364-366).

In some embodiments, a 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase or 3-oxoacyl-CoA dehydrogenase can be classified under EC 1.1.1.—. For example, the 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase can be classified under EC 1.1.1.35, such as the gene product of fadB; classified under EC 1.1.1.157, such as the gene product of hbd (also can be referred to as a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase); or classified under EC 1.1.1.36, such as the acetoacetyl-CoA reductase gene product of phaB (Liu & Chen, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 2007, 76(5):1153-1159; Shen et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 2011, 77(9):2905-2915; Budde et al., J. Bacteriol., 2010, 192(20):5319-5328).

In some embodiments, a 3-oxoacyl-CoA reductase can be classified under EC 1.1.1.100, such as the gene product of fabG (Budde et al., J. Bacteriol., 2010, 192(20):5319-5328; Nomura et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 2005, 71(8):4297-4306).

In some embodiments, an enoyl-CoA hydratase can be classified under EC 4.2.1.17, such as the gene product of crt, or classified under EC 4.2.1.119, such as the gene product ofphaJ (Shen et al., 2011, supra; Fukui et al., J. Bacteriol., 1998, 180(3):667-673).

In some embodiments, a trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase can be classified under EC 1.3.1.38, EC 1.3.1.8, or EC 1.3.1.44, such as the gene product of ter (Nishimaki et al., J. Biochem., 1984, 95:1315-1321; Shen et al., 2011, supra) or tdter (Bond-Watts et al., Biochemistry, 2012, 51:6827-6837).

Enzymes Generating the Terminal Carboxyl Groups in the Biosynthesis of C6 Building Blocks

As depicted in FIG. 3 and FIG. 4, the terminal carboxyl groups can be enzymatically formed using a thioesterase, an aldehyde dehydrogenase, a 6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase, a 7-oxoheptanoate dehydrogenase, or a monooxygenase.

In some embodiments, the first terminal carboxyl group leading to the synthesis of a C6 building block is enzymatically formed in hexanoyl-CoA by a thioesterase classified under EC 3.1.2.—, resulting in the production of hexanoate. The thioesterase can be the gene product of YciA, tesB or Acot13 (Cantu et al., Protein Science, 2010, 19, 1281-1295; Zhuang et al., Biochemistry, 2008, 47(9):2789-2796; Naggert et al., J. Biol. Chem., 1991, 266(17):11044-11050).

In some embodiments, the first terminal carboxyl group leading to the synthesis of a C6 building block can be enzymatically formed in hexanal by an aldehyde dehydrogenase classified under EC 1.2.1.4 (see, Ho & Weiner, J. Bacteriol., 2005, 187(3):1067-1073), resulting in the production of hexanoate.

In some embodiments, the second terminal carboxyl group leading to the synthesis of adipic acid can be enzymatically formed in adipate semilaldehyde by an aldehyde dehydrogenase classified under EC 1.2.1.3 (Guerrillot & Vandecasteele, Eur. J. Biochem., 1977, 81, 185- 192).

In some embodiments, the second terminal carboxyl group leading to the synthesis of adipic acid is enzymatically formed in adipate semialdehyde by a 6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase such as the gene product of ChnE from Acinetobacter sp. or 7-oxoheptanoate dehydrogenase such as the gene product of ThnG from Sphingomonas macrogolitabida (Iwaki et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 1999, 65(11), 5158-5162; Lopez-Sanchez et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 2010, 76(1), 110- 118)). For example, a 6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase can be classified under EC 1.2.1.63. For example, a 7 -oxoheptanoate dehydrogenase can be classified under EC 1.2.1.—

In some embodiments, the second terminal carboxyl group leading to the synthesis of adipic acid is enzymatically formed in adipate semialdehyde by a monooxygenase in the cytochrome P450 family such as CYP4F3B (see, e.g., Sanders et al., J. Lipid Research, 2005, 46(5):1001-1008; Sanders et al., The FASEB Journal, 2008, 22(6):2064-2071).

The utility of w-oxidation in introducing carboxyl groups into alkanes has been demonstrated in the yeast Candida tropicalis, leading to the synthesis of adipic acid (Okuhara et al., Agr. Biol. Chem., 1971, 35(9), 1376-1380).

Enzymes Generating the Terminal Amine Groups in The Biosynthesis of C6 Building Blocks

As depicted in FIG. 5 and FIG. 6, terminal amine groups can be enzymatically formed using a ω-transaminase or a deacetylase.

In some embodiments, the first terminal amine group leading to the synthesis of 6-aminohexanoic acid is enzymatically formed in adipate semialdehyde by a ω-transaminase classified, for example, under EC 2.6.1.18, EC 2.6.1.19, EC 2.6.1.29, EC 2.6.1.48, or EC 2.6.1.82 such as that obtained from Chromobacterium violaceum (Genbank Accession No. AAQ59697.1, SEQ ID NO: 7), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Genbank Accession No. AAG08191.1, SEQ ID NO: 8), Pseudomonas syringae (Genbank Accession No. AAY39893.1, SEQ ID NO: 9), Rhodobacter sphaeroides (Genbank Accession No. ABA81135.1, SEQ ID NO: 10), Vibrio Fluvialis (Genbank Accession No. AAA57874.1, SEQ ID NO: 11), Streptomyces griseus, or Clostridium viride. An additional ω-transaminase that can be used in the methods and hosts described herein is from Escherichia coli (Genbank Accession No. AAA57874.1, SEQ ID NO: 11).

Some of the ω-transaminases classified, for example, under EC 2.6.1.29 or EC 2.6.1.82 are diamine ω-transaminases (e.g., SEQ ID NO:11).

The reversible ω-transaminase from Chromobacterium violaceum (Genbank Accession No. AAQ59697.1, SEQ ID NO: 7) has demonstrated analogous activity accepting 6-aminohexanoic acid as amino donor, thus forming the first terminal amine group in adipate seminaldehyde (Kaulmann et al., Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 2007, 41, 628-637).

The reversible 4-aminobubyrate:2-oxoglutarate transaminase from Streptomyces griseus has demonstrated activity for the conversion of 6-aminohexanoate to adipate semialdehyde (Yonaha et al., Eur. J. Biochem., 1985, 146, 101-106).

The reversible 5-aminovalerate transaminase from Clostridium viride has demonstrated activity for the conversion of 6-aminohexanoate to adipate semialdehyde (Barker et al., J. Biol. Chem., 1987, 262(19), 8994-9003).

In some embodiments, the second terminal amine group leading to the synthesis of hexamethylenediamine is enzymatically formed in 6-aminohexanal by a diamine transaminase classified, for example, under EC 2.6.1.29 or classified, for example, under EC 2.6.1.82, such as the gene product of YgjG from E. coli (Genbank Accession No. AAA57874.1, SEQ ID NO: 12).

The gene product of ygiG accepts a broad range of diamine carbon chain length substrates, such as putrescine, cadaverine and spermidine (Samsonova et al., BMC Microbiology, 2003, 3:2).

The diamine transaminase from E. coli strain B has demonstrated activity for 1,7 diaminoheptane (Kim, The Journal of Chemistry, 1964, 239(3), 783-786).

In some embodiments, the second terminal amine group leading to the synthesis of heptamethylenediamine is enzymatically formed by a deacetylase classified, for example, under EC 3.5.1.62 such as an acetylputrescine deacetylase. The acetylputrescine deacetylase from Micrococcus luteus K-11 accepts a broad range of carbon chain length substrates, such as acetylputrescine, acetylcadaverine and N⁸-acetylspermidine (see, for example, Suzuki et al., 1986, BBA-General Subjects, 882(1):140-142).

Enzymes Generating the Terminal Hydroxyl Groups in the Biosynthesis of C6 Building Blocks

As depicted in FIG. 7 and FIG. 8, the terminal hydroxyl group can be enzymatically forming using a monooxygenase or an alcohol dehydrogenase.

In some embodiments, the first terminal hydroxyl group leading to the synthesis of C6 building blocks is enzymatically formed in hexanoate by a monooxygenase. For example, the monooxygenase CYP153A family classified, for example, under EC 1.14.15.1, is soluble and has regio-specificity for terminal hydroxylation, accepting medium chain length substrates (see, e.g., Koch et al., 2009, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 75(2): 337-344; Funhoff et al., 2006, J. Bacteriol., 188(44): 5220-5227;Van Beilen & Funhoff, Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 2005, 16, 308-314; Nieder and Shapiro, J. Bacteriol., 1975, 122(1), 93-98). Although non-terminal hydroxylation is observed in vitro for CYP153A, in vivo only 1-hydroxylation occurs (Funhoff et al., J. Bacteriol., 2006, 188(14), 5220-5227).

The substrate specificity and activity of terminal monooxygenases has been broadened via successfully, reducing the chain length specificity of CYP153A6 to below C8 (Koch et al., 2009, supra).

In some embodiments, the second terminal hydroxyl group leading to the synthesis of 1,6 hexanediol is enzymatically formed in 6-hydroxyhexanal by an alcohol dehydrogenase classified under EC 1.1.1.— (e.g., EC 1.1.1.1, 1.1.1.2, 1.1.1.21, or 1.1.1.184).

Biochemical Pathways

Pathways to hexanoyl-CoA as precursor leading to central precursors to C6 Building Blocks

In some embodiments, hexanoyl-CoA is synthesized from the central metabolite, acetyl-CoA, by conversion of acetyl-CoA to acetoacetyl-CoA by an acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase classified, for example, under EC 2.3.1.9, such as the gene product of atoB or phaA, or by an acetyl-CoA carboxylase classified, for example, under EC 6.4.1.2 and an acetoacetyl-CoA synthase classified, for example, under EC 2.3.1.194 via malonyl-CoA; followed by conversion of acetoacetyl-CoA to (S) 3-hydroxybutanoyl-CoA by a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.35, such as the gene product of fadB or classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.157 such as the gene product of hbd; followed by conversion of (S) 3-hydroxybutanoyl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA by an enoyl-CoA hydratase classified, for example, under EC 4.2.1.17 such as the gene product of crt; followed by conversion of crotonyl-CoA to butanoyl-CoA by a trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase classified, for example, under EC 1.3.1.44 such as the gene product of ter or tdter; followed by conversion of butanoyl-CoA to 3-oxo-hexanoyl-CoA by β-ketothiolase classified, for example, under EC 2.3.1.16 such as the gene product of bktB; followed by conversion of 3-oxo-hexanoyl-CoA to (S) 3-hydroxyhexanoyl-CoA by a 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.35 such as the gene product of fadB or classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.157 such as the gene product of hbd; followed by conversion of (S) 3-hydroxyhexanoyl-CoA to hex-2-enoyl-CoA by an enoyl-CoA hydratase classified, for example, under EC 4.2.1.17 such as the gene product of crt; followed by conversion of hex-2-enoyl-CoA to hexanoyl-CoA by a trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase classified, for example, under EC 1.3.1.44 such as the gene product of ter or tdter. See FIG. 1.

In some embodiments, hexanoyl-CoA is synthesized from the central metabolite, acetyl-CoA, by conversion of acetyl-CoA to acetoacetyl-CoA by an acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase classified, for example, under EC 2.3.1.9 , such as the gene product of atoB or phaA, or by an acetyl-CoA carboxylase classified, for example, under EC 6.4.1.2 & an acetoacetyl-CoA synthase classified, for example, under EC 2.3.1.194 via malonyl-CoA; followed by conversion of acetoacetyl-CoA to (R) 3-hydroxybutanoyl-CoA by a 3-acetoacetyl-CoA reductase classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.36 such as the gene product of phaB or classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.100, such as the gene product of fabG; followed by conversion of (R) 3-hydroxybutanoyl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA by an enoyl-CoA hydratase classified, for example, under EC 4.2.1.119 such as the gene product of phaJ ; followed by conversion of crotonyl-CoA to butanoyl-CoA by a trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase classified, for example, under EC 1.3.1.38 or an acyl-dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.3.1.8; followed by conversion of butanoyl-CoA to 3-oxo-hexanoyl-CoA by a β-ketothiolase classified, for example, under EC 2.3.1.16 such as the gene product of bktB; followed by conversion of 3-oxo-hexanoyl-CoA to (R) 3-hydroxyhexanoyl-CoA by a 3-oxoacyl-CoA reductase classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.36 such as the gene product of phaB or classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.100 such as the gene product of fabG; followed by conversion of (R) 3-hydroxyhexanoyl-CoA to hex-2-enoyl-CoA by an enoyl-CoA hydratase classified, for example, under EC 4.2.1.119 such as the gene product of phaJ; followed by conversion of hex-2-enoyl-CoA to hexanoyl-CoA by a trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase classified, for example, under EC 1.3.1.38 or an acyl-CoA dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.3.1.8. See FIG. 2.

Pathways Using Hexanoyl-CoA as Precursor Leading to the Central Precursor Hexanoate

In some embodiments, hexanoate is synthesized from the central metabolite, hexanoyl-CoA, by conversion of hexanoyl-CoA to hexanoate by a thioesterase classified, for example, under EC 3.1.2.— such as the gene product of YciA, tesB or Acot13.

In some embodiments, hexanoate is synthesized from the central metabolite, hexanoyl-CoA, by conversion of hexanoyl-CoA to hexanal by a butanal dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.2.1.57; followed by conversion of hexanal to hexanoate by an aldehyde dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.2.1.4. See FIG. 3.

The conversion of hexanoyl-CoA to hexanal has been demonstrated for both NADH and NADPH as co-factors (Palosaari and Rogers, J. Bacteriol., 1988, 170(7), 2971-2976).

Pathways Using Hexanoate as Central Precursor to Adipic Acid

In some embodiments, adipic acid is synthesized from the central precursor, hexanoate, by conversion of hexanoate to 6-hydroxyhexanoate by a monooxygenase (e.g., cytochrome P450 such as from the CYP153 family (e.g., CYP153A6); followed by conversion of 6-hydroxyhexanoate to adipate semialdehyde by an alcohol dehydrogenase classified under EC 1.1.1.—such as the gene product of YMR318C (classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.2, see Genbank Accession No. CAA90836.1) (Larroy et al., 2002, Biochem J., 361(Pt 1), 163-172), cpnD (Iwaki et al., 2002, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 68(11):5671-5684) or gabD (Liitke-Eversloh & Steinbiichel, 1999, FEMS Microbiology Letters, 181(1):63-71) or a 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.258 such as the gene product of ChnD (Iwaki et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 1999, 65(11):5158 - 5162); followed by conversion of adipate semialdehyde to adipic acid by a dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.2.1.— such as a 7-oxoheptanoate dehydrogenase (e.g., the gene product of ThnG), a 6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase (e.g., the gene product of ChnE), or an aldehyde dehydrogenase classified under EC 1.2.1.3. See FIG. 4. The alcohol dehydrogenase encoded by YMR318C has broad substrate specificity, including the oxidation of C6 alcohols.

In some embodiments, adipic acid is synthesized from the central precursor, hexanoate, by conversion of hexanoate to 6-hydroxyhexanoate by a monooxygenase (e.g., cytochrome P450) such as from the CYP153 (e.g., CYP153A); followed by conversion of 6-hydroxyhexanoate to adipate semialdehyde by a cytochrome P450 (Sanders et al., J. Lipid Research, 2005, 46(5), 1001-1008; Sanders et al., The FASEB Journal, 2008, 22(6), 2064-2071); followed by conversion of adipate semialdehyde to adipic acid by a monooxygenase in the cytochrome P450 family such as CYP4F3B. See FIG. 4.

Pathway Using Hexanoate as Central Precursor to 6-Aminohexanoate and ε-Caprolactam

In some embodiments, 6-aminohexanoate is synthesized from the central precursor, hexanoate, by conversion of hexanoate to 6-hydroxyhexanoate by a monooxygenase e.g., cytochrome P450 such as from the CYP153 family (e.g., CYP153A6); followed by conversion of 6-hydroxyhexanoate to adipate semialdehyde by an alcohol dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.2 such as the gene product of YMR318C, a 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.258, a 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.— such as the gene product of cpnD, or a 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.— such as the gene product of gabD; followed by conversion of adipate semialdehyde to 6-aminohexanoate by a ω-transaminase (EC 2.6.1.18, EC 2.6.1.19, EC 2.6.1.29, EC 2.6.1.48, or EC 2.6.1.82 such as SEQ ID NOs:7-12, see above). See FIG. 5.

In some embodiments, ε-caprolactam is synthesized from the central precursor, hexanoate, by conversion of hexanoate to 6-hydroxyhexanoate by a monooxygenase such as from the CYP153 family (e.g., CYP153A); followed by conversion of 6-hydroxyhexanoate to adipate semialdehyde by an alcohol dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.2 such as the gene product of YMR318C, a 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.258, a 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.— such as the gene product of cpnD, or a 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.— such as the gene product of gabD; followed by conversion of adipate semialdehyde to 6-aminohexanoate by a co-transaminase (EC 2.6.1.18, EC 2.6.1.19, EC 2.6.1.29, EC 2.6.1.48, or EC 2.6.1.82); followed by conversion of 6-aminohexanoate to ε-caprolactam by a hydrolase (EC 3.5.2.—). See FIG. 5.

Pathway Using 6-Aminohexanoate, 6-Hydroxyhexanoate, or Adipate Semialdehyde as a Central Precursor to Hexamethylenediamine

In some embodiments, hexamethylenediamine is synthesized from the central precursor, 6-aminohexanoate, by conversion of 6-aminohexanoate to 6-aminohexanal by a carboxylate reductase classified, for example, under EC 1.2.99.6 such as the gene product of car in combination with a phosphopantetheine transferase enhancer (e.g., encoded by a sfp gene from Bacillus subtilis or npt gene from Nocardia) or the gene products of GriC and GriD from Streptomyces griseus (Suzuki et al., J. Antibiot., 2007, 60(6), 380-387); followed by conversion of 6-aminohexanal to hexamethylenediamine by a ω-transaminase (e.g., EC 2.6.1.18, EC 2.6.1.19, EC 2.6.1.48, EC 2.6.1.82 such as SEQ ID NOs:7-12). The carboxylate reductase can be obtained, for example, from Mycobacterium marinum (Genbank Accession No. ACC40567.1, SEQ ID NO: 2), Mycobacterium smegmatis (Genbank Accession No. ABK71854.1, SEQ ID NO: 3), Segniliparus rugosus (Genbank Accession No. EFV 11917.1, SEQ ID NO: 4), Mycobacterium massiliense (Genbank Accession No. EIV 11143.1, SEQ ID NO: 5), or Segniliparus rotundus (Genbank Accession No. ADG98140.1, SEQ ID NO: 6). See FIG. 6.

The carboxylate reductase encoded by the gene product of car and enhancer npt or sfp has broad substrate specificity, including terminal difunctional C4 and C5 carboxylic acids (Venkitasubramanian et al., Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 2008, 42, 130-137).

In some embodiments, hexamethylenediamine is synthesized from the central precursor, 6-hydroxyhexanoate (which can be produced as described in FIG. 7), by conversion of 6-hydroxyhexanoate to 6-hydroxyhexanal by a carboxylate reductase classified, for example, under EC 1.2.99.6 such as the gene product of car (see above) in combination with a phosphopantetheine transferase enhancer (e.g., encoded by a sfp gene from Bacillus subtilis or npt gene from Nocardia) or the gene product of GriC & GriD (Suzuki et al., 2007, supra); followed by conversion of 6-aminohexanal to 6-aminohexanol by a co-transaminase classified, for example, under EC 2.6.1.18, EC 2.6.1.19, EC 2.6.1.29, EC 2.6.1.48, or EC 2.6.1.82 such as SEQ ID NOs:7-12, see above; followed by conversion to 7-aminoheptanal by an alcohol dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.— (e.g., EC 1.1.1.1, EC 1.1.1.2, EC 1.1.1.21, or EC 1.1.1.184) such as the gene product of YMR318C or YqhD (Liu et al., Microbiology, 2009, 155, 2078-2085; Larroy et al., 2002, Biochem J., 361(Pt 1), 163-172; Jarboe, 2011, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 89(2), 249-257) or the protein having GenBank Accession No. CAA81612.1; followed by conversion to heptamethylenediamine by a ω-transaminase classified, for example, under EC 2.6.1.18, EC 2.6.1.19, EC 2.6.1.29, EC 2.6.1.48, or EC 2.6.1.82 such as SEQ ID NOs:7-12, see above. See FIG. 6.

In some embodiments, hexamethylenediamine is synthesized from the central precursor, 6-aminohexanoate, by conversion of 6-aminohexanoate to N6-acetyl-6-aminohexanoate by an N-acetyltransferase such as a lysine N-acetyltransferase classified, for example, under EC 2.3.1.32; followed by conversion to N6-acetyl-6-aminohexanal by a carboxylate reductase classified, for example, under EC 1.2.99.6 such as the gene product of car (see above) in combination with a phosphopantetheine transferase enhancer (e.g., encoded by a sfp gene from Bacillus subtilis or npt gene from Nocardia) or the gene product of GriC & GriD; followed by conversion to N6-acetyl-1,6-diaminohexane by a co-transaminase classified, for example, under EC 2.6.1.18, EC 2.6.1.19, EC 2.6.1.29, EC 2.6.1.48, or EC 2.6.1.82 such as SEQ ID NOs:7-12, see above;

followed by conversion to heptamethylenediamine by an acetylputrescine deacylase classified, for example, under EC 3.5.1.62. See, FIG. 6.

In some embodiments, hexamethylenediamine is synthesized from the central precursor, adipate semialdehyde, by conversion of adipate semialdehyde to hexanedial by a carboxylate reductase classified, for example, under EC 1.2.99.6 such as the gene product of car (see above) in combination with a phosphopantetheine transferase enhancer (e.g., encoded by a sfp gene from Bacillus subtilis or npt gene from Nocardia) or the gene product of GriC & GriD; followed by conversion to 6-aminohexanal by a ω-transaminase classified, for example, under EC 2.6.1.18, EC 2.6.1.19, or EC 2.6.1.48; followed by conversion to hexamethylenediamine by a ω-transaminase classified, for example, under EC 2.6.1.18, EC 2.6.1.19, EC 2.6.1.29, EC 2.6.1.48, or EC 2.6.1.82 such as SEQ ID NOs:7-12. See FIG. 6.

Pathways Using Hexanoate as Central Precursor to 6-hydroxyhexanoate or 1,6-hexanediol

In some embodiments, 6-hydroxyhexanoate is synthesized from the central precursor, hexanoate, by conversion of hexanoate to 6-hydroxyhexanoate by a monooxygenase such as from the CYP153 family (e.g., CYP153A). See FIG. 7.

In some embodiments, 1,6 hexanediol is synthesized from the central precursor, 6-hydroxyhexanoate, by conversion of 6-hydroxyhexanoate to 6-hydroxyhexanal by a carboxylate reductase classified, for example, under EC 1.2.99.6 such as the gene product of car (see above) in combination with a phosphopantetheine transferase enhancer (e.g., encoded by a sfp gene from Bacillus subtilis or npt gene from Nocardia) or the gene products of GriC and GriD from Streptomyces griseus (Suzuki et al., J. Antibiot., 2007, 60(6), 380-387); followed by conversion of 6-hydroxyhexanal to 1,6 hexanediol by an alcohol dehydrogenase (classified, for example, under EC 1.1.1.—such as EC 1.1.1.1, EC 1.1.1.2, EC 1.1.1.21, or EC 1.1.1.184) such as the gene product of YMR318C or YqhD (from E. coli, GenBank Accession No. AAA69178.1) (see, e.g., Liu et al., Microbiology, 2009, 155, 2078-2085; Larroy et al., 2002, Biochem J., 361(Pt 1), 163-172; or Jarboe, 2011, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 89(2), 249-257) or the protein having GenBank Accession No. CAA81612.1 (from Geobacillus stearothermophilus). See, FIG. 8.

Cultivation Strategy

In some embodiments, one or more C6 building blocks are biosynthesized in a recombinant host using anaerobic, aerobic or micro-aerobic cultivation conditions. A non-cyclical or a cyclical cultivation strategy can be used to achieve the desired cultivation conditions. For example, a non-cyclical strategy can be used to achieve anaerobic, aerobic or micro-aerobic cultivation conditions.

In some embodiments, a cyclical cultivation strategy can be used to alternate between anaerobic cultivation conditions and aerobic cultivation conditions.

In some embodiments, the cultivation strategy entails nutrient limitation such as nitrogen, phosphate or oxygen limitation.

In some embodiments, a cell retention strategy using, for example, ceramic hollow fiber membranes can be employed to achieve and maintain a high cell density during either fed-batch or continuous fermentation.

In some embodiments, the principal carbon source fed to the fermentation in the synthesis of one or more C6 building blocks can derive from biological or non-biological feedstocks.

In some embodiments, the biological feedstock can be or can derive from, monosaccharides, disaccharides, lignocellulose, hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin, levulinic acid and formic acid, triglycerides, glycerol, fatty acids, agricultural waste, condensed distillers' solubles, or municipal waste.

The efficient catabolism of crude glycerol stemming from the production of biodiesel has been demonstrated in several microorganisms such as Escherichia coli, Cupriavidus necator, Pseudomonas oleavorans, Pseudomonas putida and Yarrowia lipolytica (Lee et al., Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol., 2012, 166:1801-1813; Yang et al., Biotechnology for Biofuels, 2012, 5:13; Meijnen et al., Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 2011, 90:885-893).

The efficient catabolism of lignocellulosic-derived levulinic acid has been demonstrated in several organisms such as Cupriavidus necator and Pseudomonas putida in the synthesis of 3-hydroxyvalerate via the precursor propanoyl-CoA (Jaremko and Yu, 2011, supra; Martin and Prather, J. Biotechnol., 2009, 139:61-67).

The efficient catabolism of lignin-derived aromatic compounds such as benzoate analogues has been demonstrated in several microorganisms such as Pseudomonas putida, Cupriavidus necator (Bugg et al., Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 2011, 22, 394-400; Perez-Pantoja et al., FEMS Microbiol. Rev., 2008, 32, 736p 794). The efficient utilization of agricultural waste, such as olive mill waste water has been demonstrated in several microorganisms, including Yarrowia lipolytica (Papanikolaou et al., Bioresour. Technol., 2008, 99(7):2419-2428).

The efficient utilization of fermentable sugars such as monosaccharides and disaccharides derived from cellulosic, hemicellulosic, cane and beet molasses, cassava, corn and other argricultural sources has been demonstrated for several microorganism such as Escherichia coli, Corynebacterium glutamicum and Lactobacillus delbrueckii and Lactococcus lactis (see, e.g., Hermann et al, J. Biotechnol., 2003, 104:155-172; Wee et al., Food Technol. Biotechnol., 2006, 44(2):163-172; Ohashi et al., J. Bioscience and Bioengineering, 1999, 87(5):647-654).

The efficient utilization of furfural, derived from a variety of agricultural lignocellulosic sources, has been demonstrated for Cupriavidus necator (Li et al., Biodegradation, 2011, 22:1215-1225).

In some embodiments, the non-biological feedstock can be or can derive from natural gas, syngas, CO₂/H₂, methanol, ethanol, benzoate, non-volatile residue (NVR) or a caustic wash waste stream from cyclohexane oxidation processes, or terephthalic acid/isophthalic acid mixture waste streams.

The efficient catabolism of methanol has been demonstrated for the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris.

The efficient catabolism of ethanol has been demonstrated for Clostridium kluyveri (Seedorf et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2008, 105(6) 2128-2133).

The efficient catabolism of CO₂ and H₂, which may be derived from natural gas and other chemical and petrochemical sources, has been demonstrated for Cupriavidus necator (Prybylski et al., Energy, Sustainability and Society, 2012, 2:11).

The efficient catabolism of syngas has been demonstrated for numerous microorganisms, such as Clostridium ljungdahlii and Clostridium autoethanogenum (Köpke et al., Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2011, 77(15):5467-5475).

The efficient catabolism of the non-volatile residue waste stream from cyclohexane processes has been demonstrated for numerous microorganisms, such as Delftia acidovorans and Cupriavidus necator (Ramsay et al., Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 1986, 52(1):152-156).

In some embodiments, the host microorganism is a prokaryote. For example, the prokaryote can be a bacterium from the genus Escherichia such as Escherichia coli; from the genus Clostridia such as Clostridium ljungdahlii, Clostridium autoethanogenum or Clostridium kluyveri; from the genus Corynebacteria such as Corynebacterium glutamicum; from the genus Cupriavidus such as Cupriavidus necator or Cupriavidus metallidurans; from the genus Pseudomonas such as Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas putida or Pseudomonas oleavorans; from the genus Delftia such as Delftia acidovorans; from the genus Bacillus such as Bacillus subtillis; from the genus Lactobacillus such as Lactobacillus delbrueckii; or from the genus Lactococcus such as Lactococcus lactis. Such prokaryotes also can be a source of genes to construct recombinant host cells described herein that are capable of producing one or more C7 building blocks.

In some embodiments, the host microorganism is a eukaryote. For example, the eukaryote can be a filamentous fungus, e.g., one from the genus Aspergillus such as Aspergillus niger. Alternatively, the eukaryote can be a yeast, e.g., one from the genus Saccharomyces such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae; from the genus Pichia such as Pichia pastoris; or from the genus Yarrowia such as Yarrowia lipolytica; from the genus Issatchenkia such as Issathenkia orientalis; from the genus Debaryomyces such as Debaryomyces hansenii; from the genus Arxula such as Arxula adenoinivorans; or from the genus Kluyveromyces such as Kluyveromyces lactis. Such eukaryotes also can be a source of genes to construct recombinant host cells described herein that are capable of producing one or more C6 building blocks.

Metabolic Engineering

The present document provides methods involving less than all the steps described for all the above pathways. Such methods can involve, for example, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve or more of such steps. Where less than all the steps are included in such a method, the first, and in some embodiments the only, step can be any one of the steps listed.

Furthermore, recombinant hosts described herein can include any combination of the above enzymes such that one or more of the steps, e.g., one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, or more of such steps, can be performed within a recombinant host. This document provides host cells of any of the genera and species listed and genetically engineered to express one or more (e.g., two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, 10, 11, 12 or more) recombinant forms of any of the enzymes recited in the document. Thus, for example, the host cells can contain exogenous nucleic acids encoding enzymes catalyzing one or more of the steps of any of the pathways described herein.

In addition, this document recognizes that where enzymes have been described as accepting CoA-activated substrates, analogous enzyme activities associated with [acp]-bound substrates exist that are not necessarily in the same enzyme class.

Also, this document recognizes that where enzymes have been described accepting (R)-enantiomers of substrate, analogous enzyme activities associated with (S)-enantiomer substrates exist that are not necessarily in the same enzyme class.

This document also recognizes that where an enzyme is shown to accept a particular co-factor, such as NADPH, or co-substrate, such as acetyl-CoA, many enzymes are promiscuous in terms of accepting a number of different co-factors or co-substrates in catalyzing a particular enzyme activity. Also, this document recognizes that where enzymes have high specificity for e.g., a particular co-factor such as NADH, an enzyme with similar or identical activity that has high specificity for the co-factor NADPH may be in a different enzyme class.

In some embodiments, the enzymes in the pathways outlined herein are the result of enzyme engineering via non-direct or rational enzyme design approaches with aims of improving activity, improving specificity, reducing feedback inhibition, reducing repression, improving enzyme solubility, changing stereo-specificity, or changing co-factor specificity.

In some embodiments, the enzymes in the pathways outlined here can be gene dosed, i.e., overexpressed, into the resulting genetically modified organism via episomal or chromosomal integration approaches.

In some embodiments, genome-scale system biology techniques such as Flux Balance Analysis can be utilized to devise genome scale attenuation or knockout strategies for directing carbon flux to a C6 building block. Attenuation strategies include, but are not limited to; the use of transposons, homologous recombination (double cross-over approach), mutagenesis, enzyme inhibitors and RNAi interference.

In some embodiments, fluxomic, metabolomic and transcriptomal data can be utilized to inform or support genome-scale system biology techniques, thereby devising genome scale attenuation or knockout strategies in directing carbon flux to a C6 building block.

In some embodiments, the host microorganism's tolerance to high concentrations of a C6 building block can be improved through continuous cultivation in a selective environment.

In some embodiments, the host microorganism's endogenous biochemical network can be attenuated or augmented to (1) ensure the intracellular availability of acetyl-CoA, (2) create an NADH or NADPH imbalance that may only be balanced via the formation of one or more C6 building blocks, (3) prevent degradation of central metabolites, central precursors leading to and including one or more C6 building blocks and/or (4) ensure efficient efflux from the cell.

In some embodiments requiring intracellular availability of acetyl-CoA for C6 building block synthesis, endogenous enzymes catalyzing the hydrolysis of acetyl-CoA such as short-chain length thioesterases can be attenuated in the host organism.

In some embodiments requiring the intracellular availability of acetyl-CoA for C6 building block synthesis, an endogenous phosphotransacetylase generating acetate such as pta can be attenuated (Shen et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 2011, 77(9):2905-2915).

In some embodiments requiring the intracellular availability of acetyl-CoA for C6 building block synthesis, an endogenous gene in an acetate synthesis pathway encoding an acetate kinase, such as ack, can be attenuated.

In some embodiments requiring the intracellular availability of acetyl-CoA and NADH for C6 building block synthesis, an endogenous gene encoding an enzyme that catalyzes the degradation of pyruvate to lactate such as lactate dehydrogenase encoded by ldhA can be attenuated (Shen et al., 2011, supra).

In some embodiments requiring the intracellular availability of acetyl-CoA and NADH for C6 building block synthesis, endogenous genes encoding enzymes, such as menaquinol-fumarate oxidoreductase, that catalyze the degradation of phophoenolpyruvate to succinate such as frdBC can be attenuated (see, e.g., Shen et al., 2011, supra).

In some embodiments requiring the intracellular availability of acetyl-CoA and NADH for C6 building block synthesis, an endogenous gene encoding an enzyme that catalyzes the degradation of acetyl-CoA to ethanol such as the alcohol dehydrogenase encoded by adhE can be attenuated (Shen et al., 2011, supra).

In some embodiments, where pathways require excess NADH co-factor for C6 building block synthesis, a recombinant formate dehydrogenase gene can be overexpressed in the host organism (Shen et al., 2011, supra).

In some embodiments, where pathways require excess NADH co-factor for C7 building block synthesis, a recombinant NADH-consuming transhydrogenase can be attenuated.

In some embodiments, an endogenous gene encoding an enzyme that catalyzes the degradation of pyruvate to ethanol such as pyruvate decarboxylase can be attenuated.

In some embodiments, an endogenous gene encoding an enzyme that catalyzes the generation of isobutanol such as a 2-oxoacid decarboxylase can be attenuated.

In some embodiments requiring the intracellular availability of acetyl-CoA for C6 building block synthesis, a recombinant acetyl-CoA synthetase such as the gene product of acs can be overexpressed in the microorganism (Satoh et al., J. Bioscience and Bioengineering, 2003, 95(4):335-341).

In some embodiments, carbon flux can be directed into the pentose phosphate cycle to increase the supply of NADPH by attenuating an endogenous glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (EC 5.3.1.9).

In some embodiments, carbon flux can be redirected into the pentose phosphate cycle to increase the supply of NADPH by overexpression a 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase and/or a transketolase (Lee et al., 2003, Biotechnology Progress, 19(5), 1444-1449).

In some embodiments, where pathways require excess NADPH co-factor in the synthesis of a C6 building block, a gene such as UdhA encoding a puridine nucleotide transhydrogenase can be overexpressed in the host organisms (Brigham et al., Advanced Biofuels and Bioproducts, 2012, Chapter 39, 1065-1090).

In some embodiments, where pathways require excess NADPH co-factor in the synthesis of a C6 Building Block, a recombinant glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase gene such as GapN can be overexpressed in the host organisms (Brigham et al., 2012, supra).

In some embodiments, where pathways require excess NADPH co-factor in the synthesis of a C6 building block, a recombinant malic enzyme gene such as macA or maeB can be overexpressed in the host organisms (Brigham et al., 2012, supra).

In some embodiments, where pathways require excess NADPH co-factor in the synthesis of a C6 building block, a recombinant glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase gene such as zwf can be overexpressed in the host organisms (Lim et al., J. Bioscience and Bioengineering, 2002, 93(6), 543-549).

In some embodiments, where pathways require excess NADPH co-factor in the synthesis of a C6 building block, a recombinant fructose 1,6 diphosphatase gene such as fbp can be overexpressed in the host organisms (Becker et al., J. Biotechnol., 2007, 132:99-109).

In some embodiments, where pathways require excess NADPH co-factor in the synthesis of a C6 building block, endogenous triose phosphate isomerase (EC 5.3.1.1) can be attenuated.

In some embodiments, where pathways require excess NADPH co-factor in the synthesis of a C6 building block, a recombinant glucose dehydrogenase such as the gene product of gdh can be overexpressed in the host organism (Satoh et al., J. Bioscience and Bioengineering, 2003, 95(4):335-341).

In some embodiments, endogenous enzymes facilitating the conversion of NADPH to NADH can be attenuated, such as the NADH generation cycle that may be generated via inter-conversion of glutamate dehydrogenases classified under EC 1.4.1.2 (NADH-specific) and EC 1.4.1.4 (NADPH-specific).

In some embodiments, an endogenous glutamate dehydrogenase (EC 1.4.1.3) that utilizes both NADH and NADPH as co-factors can be attenuated.

In some embodiments, a membrane-bound cytochrome P450 such as CYP4F3B can be solubilized by only expressing the cytosolic domain and not the N-terminal region that anchors the P450 to the endoplasmic reticulum (Scheller et al., J. Biol. Chem., 1994, 269(17):12779-12783).

In some embodiments, an enoyl-CoA reductase can be solubilized via expression as a fusion protein with a small soluble protein, for example, the maltose binding protein (Gloerich et al., FEBS Letters, 2006, 580, 2092-2096).

In some embodiments using hosts that naturally accumulate polyhydroxyalkanoates, the endogenous polymer synthase enzymes can be attenuated in the host strain.

In some embodiments, a L-alanine dehydrogenase can be overexpressed in the host to regenerate L-alanine from pyruvate as an amino donor for ω-transaminase reactions.

In some embodiments, a L-glutamate dehydrogenase, a L-glutamine synthetase, or a glutamate synthase can be overexpressed in the host to regenerate L-glutamate from 2-oxoglutarate as an amino donor for ω-transaminase reactions.

In some embodiments, enzymes such as a pimeloyl-CoA dehydrogenase classified under, EC 1.3.1.62; an acyl-CoA dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.3.8.7, EC 1.3.8.1, or EC 1.3.99.—; and/or a butyryl-CoA dehydrogenase classified, for example, under EC 1.3.8.6 that degrade central metabolites and central precursors leading to and including C6 building blocks can be attenuated.

In some embodiments, endogenous enzymes activating C6 building blocks via Coenzyme A esterification such as CoA-ligases (e.g., an adipyl-CoA synthetase) classified under, for example, EC 6.2.1.— can be attenuated.

In some embodiments, the efflux of a C6 building block across the cell membrane to the extracellular media can be enhanced or amplified by genetically engineering structural modifications to the cell membrane or increasing any associated transporter activity for a C6 building block.

The efflux of hexamethylenediamine can be enhanced or amplified by overexpressing broad substrate range multidrug transporters such as Blt from Bacillus subtilis (Woolridge et al., 1997, J. Biol. Chem., 272(14):8864-8866); AcrB and AcrD from Escherichia coli (Elkins & Nikaido, 2002, J. Bacteriol., 184(23), 6490-6499), NorA from Staphylococcus aereus (Ng et al., 1994, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 38(6), 1345-1355), or Bmr from Bacillus subtilis (Neyfakh, 1992, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 36(2), 484-485).

The efflux of 6-aminohexanoate and heptamethylenediamine can be enhanced or amplified by overexpressing the solute transporters such as the lysE transporter from Corynebacterium glutamicum (Bellmann et al., 2001, Microbiology, 147, 1765-1774).

The efflux of adipic acid can be enhanced or amplified by overexpressing a dicarboxylate transporter such as the SucE transporter from Corynebacterium glutamicum (Huhn et al., Appl. Microbiol. & Biotech., 89(2), 327-335).

Producing C6 Building Blocks Using a Recombinant Host

Typically, one or more C6 building blocks can be produced by providing a host microorganism and culturing the provided microorganism with a culture medium containing a suitable carbon source as described above. In general, the culture media and/or culture conditions can be such that the microorganisms grow to an adequate density and produce a C6 building block efficiently. For large-scale production processes, any method can be used such as those described elsewhere (Manual of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2^(nd) Edition, Editors: A. L. Demain and J. E. Davies, ASM Press; and Principles of Fermentation Technology, P. F. Stanbury and A. Whitaker, Pergamon). Briefly, a large tank (e.g., a 100 gallon, 200 gallon, 500 gallon, or more tank) containing an appropriate culture medium is inoculated with a particular microorganism. After inoculation, the microorganism is incubated to allow biomass to be produced. Once a desired biomass is reached, the broth containing the microorganisms can be transferred to a second tank. This second tank can be any size. For example, the second tank can be larger, smaller, or the same size as the first tank. Typically, the second tank is larger than the first such that additional culture medium can be added to the broth from the first tank. In addition, the culture medium within this second tank can be the same as, or different from, that used in the first tank.

Once transferred, the microorganisms can be incubated to allow for the production of a C6 building block. Once produced, any method can be used to isolate C6 building blocks. For example, C6 building blocks can be recovered selectively from the fermentation broth via adsorption processes. In the case of adipic acid and 6-aminoheptanoic acid, the resulting eluate can be further concentrated via evaporation, crystallized via evaporative and/or cooling crystallization, and the crystals recovered via centrifugation. In the case of hexamethylenediamine and 1,6-heptanediol, distillation may be employed to achieve the desired product purity.

The invention will be further described in the following examples, which do not limit the scope of the invention described in the claims.

EXAMPLES Example 1

Genome-scale attenuation strategy for cyclical synthesis of adipic acid from glucose in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Genome-scale Flux Balance Analysis was undertaken using the genome-scale model for Saccharomyces cerevisiae designated iMM904 (Mo et al., BMC Systems Biology, 2009, 3(37), 1-17).

The IMM904 model was extended by including w-oxidation pathways as outlined in published work for eukaryotic organisms (Sanders et al., Journal of Lipid Research, 2005, 46(5), 1001-1008). Furthermore, the β-oxidation reactions in the peroxisome of the iMM904 model were extended and relevant membrane transport reactions were included. The inactivation of a fumarate reductase was required during validation of the extended model to align model fluxes with experimental flux data.

The NADH-specific enzymatic reactions outlined in FIG. 1 were incorporated into the model.

Allowance was made for the membrane transport of hexanoic acid and adipic acid to and from the extracellular media.

The stoichiometric balance of NADH in the production of 1-butanol in E. coli is far more efficient when overexpressing formate dehydrogenase (Shen et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 2011, 77(9), 2905-2915). The iMM904 model includes formate dehydrogenase, but lacked pyruvate formate lyase activity, which was included into the Saccharomyces cerevisiae model.

The co-factor specificity of NAD(H) or NADP(H) dependent enzymes was assessed and where published literature was not unequivocal in terms of specificity, a promiscuous enzyme was assumed.

The metabolic engineering workbench, Optflux, was used to search the solution space associated with the biochemical network for attenuation strategies that (1) produce hexanoate anaerobically from glucose, followed by (2) production of adipate aerobically from the extracellular hexanoate, whilst co-feeding glucose as carbon and energy source.

The optimization trials found four beneficial attenuations; viz. (1) attenuating glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, directing flux into the pentose phosphate cycle; (2) attenuating pyruvate decarboxylase or alcohol dehydrogenase, preventing ethanol production; (3) attenuating 2-oxoacid decarboxylase, preventing isobutanol production and (4) inactivating 13-oxidation, preventing central precursor, central metabolite and adipic acid degradation.

The attenuations in this S. cerevisiae mutant using glucose as carbon and energy source, favored the balancing of NADH via the production of hexanoic acid as a means of maximizing biomass growth.

Overexpression of formate dehydrogenase in the S. cerevisiae mutant eliminated the by-product formation of formate and pyruvate, producing hexanoate with a molar yield of 0.62 [(mol hexanoate)/(mol glucose)].

Cycling from anaerobic to aerobic cultivation, while maintaining a glucose feed rate to match the growth rate under anaerobic conditions, resulted in an overall molar yield of 0.38 [(mol adipate)/(mol total glucose)].

In-silico attenuation of the biochemical network using a validated model determined that a cultivation strategy, cycling between anaerobic and aerobic conditions, produces predominantly adipic acid from the fed glucose.

Example 2

Genome-Scale Attenuation Strategy for Micro-Aerobic Synthesis from Glucose Using Nadh Imbalance to Direct Carbon Flux Towards Adipic Acid in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The iMM904 model outlined in Example 1 was utilized to assess the non-cyclical production of adipic acid using glucose as carbon and energy source under micro-aerobic, substrate oxidation and growth limiting cultivation conditions.

Using the extended iMM904 model and the metabolic engineering workbench, Optflux; optimization trials found an optimal attenuation strategy including: (1) attenuating hexanoate transport to the extracellular media; (2) attenuating ethanol excretion to the extracellular media; (3) attenuating 2-hydroxybutyrate oxidoreductase, preventing 2-hydroxybutyrate production; (4) attenuating DL glycerol-3-phosphatase, preventing glycerol production and (5) attenuating malate dehydrogenase, preventing inter-conversion of NADH to NADPH.

The resulting S. cerevisiae mutant produces adipate as the most advantageous means of balancing NADH to maximize biomass growth, producing adipate with a molar yield of 0.71 [(mol adipate)/(mol glucose)].

In-silico attenuation of the biochemical network using a validated model determined that a non-cyclical cultivation strategy under micro-aerobic conditions produces predominantly adipic acid from the fed glucose.

Example 3

Genome-Scale Attenuation Strategy for Aerobic Synthesis from Glucose Using NADPH Imbalance to Direct Carbon Flux Towards Adipic Acid in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The iMM904 model outlined in Example 1 was utilized to assess the non-cyclical production of adipic acid using glucose as carbon and energy source under aerobic cultivation and growth limiting conditions.

The NADH-specific enzymatic reactions outlined in FIG. 1 were replaced by the equivalent NADPH-specific enzymatic reactions outlined in FIG. 2.

Using the extended iMM904 model and the metabolic engineering workbench, Optflux; optimization trials found an optimal attenuation strategy including; (1) attenuating triose phosphate isomerase/phosphoglucose isomerase, redirecting flux into the pentose phosphate cycle; (2) preventing the inter-conversion of NADPH to NADH, by attenuating the NADH-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase and proline oxidase.

The resulting S. cerevisiae mutant produces adipate as the most advantageous means of balancing NADPH to maximize biomass growth, producing adipate with a molar yield of 0.4 [(mol adipate)/(mol glucose)].

In-silico attenuation of the biochemical network using a validated model determined that a non-cyclical cultivation strategy under aerobic conditions produces predominantly adipic acid from the fed glucose.

Example 4 Enzyme Activity of Thioesterases Using Hexanoyl-CoA as a Substrate and Forming Hexanoate

A nucleotide sequence encoding a His tag was added to the tesB gene from Escherichia coli that encodes a thioesterase (SEQ ID NO 1, see FIG. 9), such that an N-terminal HIS tagged thioesterase could be produced. The modified tesB gene was cloned into a pET15b expression vector under control of the T7 promoter. The expression vector was transformed into a BL21[DE3] E. coli host. The resulting recombinant E. coli strain was cultivated at 37° C. in a 500 mL shake flask culture containing 50 mL Luria Broth (LB) media and antibiotic selection pressure, with shaking at 230 rpm. The culture was induced overnight at 17° C. using 0.5 mM IPTG.

The pellet from the induced shake flask culture was harvested via centrifugation. The pellet was resuspended and lysed in Y-per™ solution (ThermoScientific, Rockford, Ill.). The cell debris was separated from the supernatant via centrifugation. The thioesterase was purified from the supernatant using Ni-affinity chromatography and the eluate was buffer exchanged and concentrated via ultrafiltration.

The enzyme activity assay was performed in triplicate in a buffer composed of 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH=7.4), 0.1 mM Ellman's reagent, and 133 μM of hexanoyl-CoA (as substrate). The enzyme activity assay reaction was initiated by adding 0.8 μM of the tesB gene product to the assay buffer containing the hexanoyl-CoA and incubating at 37° C. for 20 min. The release of Coenzyme A was monitored by absorbance at 412 nm. The absorbance associated with the substrate only control, which contained boiled enzyme, was subtracted from the active enzyme assay absorbance and compared to the empty vector control. The gene product of tesB acceped hexanoyl-CoA as substrate as confirmed via relative spectrophotometry (see FIG. 10) and synthesized hexanoate as a reaction product.

Ecxample 5 Enzyme Activity of ω-Transaminase Using Adipate Semialdehyde as Substrate and Forming 6-Aminohexanoate

A nucleotide sequence encoding a His-tag was added to the genes from Chromobacterium violaceum, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas syringae, Rhodobacter sphaeroides, and Vibrio fluvialis encoding the ω-transaminases of SEQ ID NOs: 7, 8, 9, 10 and 12, respectively (see FIG. 9) such that N-terminal HIS tagged CD-transaminases could be produced. Each of the resulting modified genes was cloned into a pET21a expression vector under control of the T7 promoter and each expression vector was transformed into a BL21[DE3] E. coli host. The resulting recombinant E. coli strains were cultivated at 37° C. in a 250 mL shake flask culture containing 50 mL LB media and antibiotic selection pressure, with shaking at 230 rpm. Each culture was induced overnight at 16° C. using 1 mM IPTG.

The pellet from each induced shake flask culture was harvested via centrifugation. Each pellet was resuspended and lysed via sonication. The cell debris was separated from the supernatant via centrifugation and the cell free extract was used immediately in enzyme activity assays.

Enzyme activity assays in the reverse direction (i.e., 6-aminohexanoate to adipate semialdehyde) were performed in a buffer composed of a final concentration of 50 mM HEPES buffer (pH=7.5), 10 mM 6-aminohexanoate, 10 mM pyruvate and 100 μM pyridoxyl 5′ phosphate. Each enzyme activity assay reaction was initiated by adding cell free extract of the ω-transaminase gene product or the empty vector control to the assay buffer containing the 6-aminohexanoate and incubated at 25° C. for 24 h, with shaking at 250 rpm. The formation of L-alanine from pyruvate was quantified via RP-HPLC.

Each enzyme only control without 6-aminoheptanoate demonstrated low base line conversion of pyruvate to L-alanine See FIG. 16. The gene product of SEQ ID NO 7, SEQ ID NO 9, SEQ ID NO 10 and SEQ ID NO 12 accepted 6-aminohexanote as substrate as confirmed against the empty vector control. See FIG. 17.

Enzyme activity in the forward direction (i.e., adipate semialdehyde to 6-aminohexanoate) was confirmed for the transaminases of SEQ ID NO 7, SEQ ID NO 8, SEQ ID NO 9, SEQ ID NO 10 and SEQ ID NO 12. Enzyme activity assays were performed in a buffer composed of a final concentration of 50 mM HEPES buffer (pH=7.5), 10 mM adipate semialdehyde, 10 mM L-alanine and 100 μM pyridoxyl 5′ phosphate. Each enzyme activity assay reaction was initiated by adding a cell free extract of the ω-transaminase gene product or the empty vector control to the assay buffer containing the adipate semialdehyde and incubated at 25° C. for 4 h, with shaking at 250 rpm. The formation of pyruvate was quantified via RP-HPLC.

The gene product of SEQ ID NO 7, SEQ ID NO 8, SEQ ID NO 9, SEQ ID NO 10 and SEQ ID NO 12 accepted adipate semialdehyde as substrate as confirmed against the empty vector control. See FIG. 18. The reversibility of the ω-transaminase activity was confirmed, demonstrating that the ω-transaminases of SEQ ID NO 7, SEQ ID NO 8, SEQ ID NO 9, SEQ ID NO 10 and SEQ ID NO 12 accepted adipate semialdehyde as substrate and synthesized 6-aminohexanoate as a reaction product.

Example 6 Enzyme Activity of Carboxylate Reductase Using Adipate as Substrate and Forming Adipate Semialdehyde

A nucleotide equence encoding a HIS-tag was added to the genes from Segniliparus rugosus and Segniliparus rotundus that encode the carboxylate reductases of SEQ ID NOs: 4 and 6, respectively (see FIG. 9), such that N-terminal HIS tagged carboxylate reductases could be produced. Each of the modified genes was cloned into a pET Duet expression vector along with a sfp gene encoding a HIS-tagged phosphopantetheine transferase from Bacillus subtilis, both under the T7 promoter. Each expression vector was transformed into a BL21[DE3] E. coli host and the resulting recombinant E. coli strains were cultivated at 37° C. in a 250 mL shake flask culture containing 50 mL LB media and antibiotic selection pressure, with shaking at 230 rpm. Each culture was induced overnight at 37° C. using an auto-induction media.

The pellet from each induced shake flask culture was harvested via centrifugation. Each pellet was resuspended and lysed via sonication, and the cell debris was separated from the supernatant via centrifugation. The carboxylate reductases and phosphopantetheine transferases were purified from the supernatant using Ni-affinity chromatography, diluted 10-fold into 50 mM HEPES buffer (pH=7.5), and concentrated via ultrafiltration.

Enzyme activity assays (i.e., from adipate to adipate semialdehyde) were performed in triplicate in a buffer composed of a final concentration of 50 mM HEPES buffer (pH=7.5), 2 mM adipate, 10 mM MgCl₂, mM ATP and 1 mM NADPH. Each enzyme activity assay reaction was initiated by adding purified carboxylate reductase and phosphopantetheine transferase gene products or the empty vector control to the assay buffer containing the adipate and then incubated at room temperature for 20 min. The consumption of NADPH was monitored by absorbance at 340 nm. Each enzyme only control without adipate demonstrated low base line consumption of NADPH. See FIG. 11.

The gene products of SEQ ID NO 4 and SEQ ID NO 6, enhanced by the gene product of sfp, accepted adipate as substrate, as confirmed against the empty vector control (see FIG. 12), and synthesized adipate semialdehyde.

Example 7 Enzyme Activity of Carboxylate Reductase Using 6-Hydroxyhexanoate as Substrate and Forming 6-Hydroxyhexanal

A nucleotide sequence encoding a His-tag was added to the genes from Mycobacterium marinum, Mycobacterium smegmatis, Mycobacterium smegmatis, Segniliparus rugosus, Mycobacterium massiliense, and Segniliparus rotundus that encode the carboxylate reductases of SEQ ID NOs: 2-6, respectively (see FIG. 9) such that N-terminal HIS tagged carboxylate reductases could be produced. Each of the modified genes was cloned into a pET Duet expression vector alongside a sfp gene encoding a His-tagged phosphopantetheine transferase from Bacillus subtilis, both under control of the T7 promoter. Each expression vector was transformed into a BL21[DE3] E. coli host along with the expression vectors from Example 3. Each resulting recombinant E. coli strain was cultivated at 37° C. in a 250 mL shake flask culture containing 50 mL LB media and antibiotic selection pressure, with shaking at 230 rpm. Each culture was induced overnight at 37° C. using an auto-induction media.

The pellet from each induced shake flask culture was harvested via centrifugation. Each pellet was resuspended and lysed via sonication. The cell debris was separated from the supernatant via centrifugation. The carboxylate reductases and phosphopantetheine transferase were purified from the supernatant using Ni-affinity chromatography, diluted 10-fold into 50 mM HEPES buffer (pH=7.5) and concentrated via ultrafiltration.

Enzyme activity (i.e., 6-hydroxyhexanoate to 6-hydroxyhexanal) assays were performed in triplicate in a buffer composed of a final concentration of 50 mM HEPES buffer (pH=7.5), 2 mM 6-hydroxyhexanal, 10 mM MgCl₂, mM ATP, and 1 mM NADPH. Each enzyme activity assay reaction was initiated by adding purified carboxylate reductase and phosphopantetheine transferase or the empty vector control to the assay buffer containing the 6-hydroxyhexanoate and then incubated at room temperature for 20 min. The consumption of NADPH was monitored by absorbance at 340 nm. Each enzyme only control without 6-hydroxyhexanoate demonstrated low base line consumption of NADPH. See FIG. 11.

The gene products of SEQ ID NO 2-6, enhanced by the gene product of sfp, accepted 6-hydroxyhexanoate as substrate as confirmed against the empty vector control (see FIG. 13), and synthesized 6-hydroxyhexanal.

Example 8 Enzyme Activity of ω-Transaminase for 6-Aminohexanol, Forming 6-Oxohexanol

A nucleotide sequence encoding an N-terminal His-tag was added to the Chromobacterium violaceum, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas syringae, Rhodobacter sphaeroides, Escherichia coli, and Vibrio fluvialis genes encoding the ω-transaminases of SEQ ID NOs: 7-12, respectively (see FIG. 9) such that N-terminal HIS tagged ω-transaminases could be produced. The modified genes were cloned into a pET21a expression vector under the T7 promoter. Each expression vector was transformed into a BL21[DE3] E. coli host. Each resulting recombinant E. coli strain were cultivated at 37° C. in a 250 mL shake flask culture containing 50 mL LB media and antibiotic selection pressure, with shaking at 230 rpm. Each culture was induced overnight at 16° C. using 1 mM IPTG.

The pellet from each induced shake flask culture was harvested via centrifugation. Each pellet was resuspended and lysed via sonication. The cell debris was separated from the supernatant via centrifugation and the cell free extract was used immediately in enzyme activity assays.

Enzyme activity assays in the reverse direction (i.e., 6-aminohexanol to 6-oxohexanol) were performed in a buffer composed of a final concentration of 50 mM HEPES buffer (pH =7.5), 10 mM 6-aminohexanol, 10 mM pyruvate, and 100 μM pyridoxyl 5′ phosphate. Each enzyme activity assay reaction was initiated by adding cell free extract of the w-transaminase gene product or the empty vector control to the assay buffer containing the 6-aminohexanol and then incubated at 25 ° C. for 4 h, with shaking at 250 rpm. The formation of L-alanine was quantified via RP-HPLC.

Each enzyme only control without 6-aminohexanol had low base line conversion of pyruvate to L-alanine See FIG. 16.

The gene products of SEQ ID NOs: 7 - 12 accepted 6-aminohexanol as substrate as confirmed against the empty vector control (see FIG. 21) and synthesized 6-oxohexanol as reaction product. Given the reversibility of the co-transaminase activity (see Example 5), it can be concluded that the gene products of SEQ ID NOs: 7-12 accept 6-aminohexanol as substrate and form 6-oxohexanol.

Example 9 Enzyme Activity of ω-Transaminase Using Hexamethylenediamine as Substrate and Forming 6-Aminohexanal

A nucleotide sequence encoding an N-terminal His-tag was added to the Chromobacterium violaceum, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas syringae, Rhodobacter sphaeroides, Escherichia coli, and Vibrio fluvialis genes encoding the ω-transaminases of SEQ ID NOs: 7-12, respectively (see FIG. 9) such that N-terminal HIS tagged ω-transaminases could be produced. The modified genes were cloned into a pET21a expression vector under the T7 promoter. Each expression vector was transformed into a BL21[DE3] E. coli host. Each resulting recombinant E. coli strain were cultivated at 37° C. in a 250 mL shake flask culture containing 50 mL LB media and antibiotic selection pressure, with shaking at 230 rpm. Each culture was induced overnight at 16° C. using 1 mM IPTG. The pellet from each induced shake flask culture was harvested via centrifugation.

Each pellet was resuspended and lysed via sonication. The cell debris was separated from the supernatant via centrifugation and the cell free extract was used immediately in enzyme activity assays.

Enzyme activity assays in the reverse direction (i.e., hexamethylenediamine to 6-aminohexanal) were performed in a buffer composed of a final concentration of 50 mM HEPES buffer (pH=7.5), 10 mM hexamethylenediamine, 10 mM pyruvate, and 100 μM pyridoxyl 5′ phosphate. Each enzyme activity assay reaction was initiated by adding cell free extract of the ω-transaminase gene product or the empty vector control to the assay buffer containing the hexamethylenediamine and then incubated at 25° C. for 4 h, with shaking at 250 rpm. The formation of L-alanine was quantified via RP-HPLC.

Each enzyme only control without hexamethylenediamine had low base line conversion of pyruvate to L-alanine See FIG. 16.

The gene products of SEQ ID NO 7-12 accepted hexamethylenediamine as substrate as confirmed against the empty vector control (see FIG. 19) and synthesized 6-aminohexanal as reaction product. Given the reversibility of the ω-transaminase activity (see Example 5), it can be concluded that the gene products of SEQ ID NOs: 7-12 accept 6-aminohexanal as substrate and form hexamethylenediamine.

Example 10 Enzyme Activity of Carboxylate Reductase for N6-Acetyl-6-Aminohexanoate, Forming N6-Acetyl-6-Aminohexanal

The activity of each of the N-terminal His-tagged carboxylate reductases of SEQ ID NOs: 4-6 (see Example 7, and FIG. 9) for converting N6-acetyl-6-aminohexanoate to N6-acetyl-6-aminohexanal was assayed in triplicate in a buffer composed of a final concentration of 50 mM HEPES buffer (pH=7.5), 2 mM N6-acetyl-6-aminohexanoate, 10 mM MgCl₂, mM ATP, and 1 mM NADPH. The assays were initiated by adding purified carboxylate reductase and phosphopantetheine transferase or the empty vector control to the assay buffer containing the N6-acetyl-6-aminohexanoate then incubated at room temperature for 20 min. The consumption of NADPH was monitored by absorbance at 340 nm. Each enzyme only control without N6-acetyl-6-aminohexanoate demonstrated low base line consumption of NADPH. See FIG. 11.

The gene products of SEQ ID NO 4-6, enhanced by the gene product of sfp, accepted N6-acetyl-6-aminohexanoate as substrate as confirmed against the empty vector control (see FIG. 14), and synthesized N6-acetyl-6-aminohexanal.

Example 11

Enzyme Activity of ω-Transaminase Using N6-Acetyl-1,6-Diaminohexane, and Forming N6-acetyl-6-Aminohexanal

The activity of the N-terminal His-tagged ω-transaminases of SEQ ID NOs: 7-12 (see Example 9, and FIG. 9) for converting N6-acetyl-1,6-diaminohexane to N6-acetyl-6-aminohexanal was assayed using a buffer composed of a final concentration of 50 mM HEPES buffer (pH=7.5), 10 mM N6-acetyl-1,6-diaminohexane, 10 mM pyruvate and 100 μM pyridoxyl 5′ phosphate. Each enzyme activity assay reaction was initiated by adding a cell free extract of the ω-transaminase or the empty vector control to the assay buffer containing the N6-acetyl-1,6-diaminohexane then incubated at 25° C. for 4 h, with shaking at 250 rpm. The formation of L-alanine was quantified via RP-HPLC.

Each enzyme only control without N6-acetyl-1,6-diaminohexane demonstrated low base line conversion of pyruvate to L-alanine See FIG. 16.

The gene product of SEQ ID NO 7-12 accepted N6-acetyl-1,6-diaminohexane as substrate as confirmed against the empty vector control (see FIG. 20) and synthesized N6-acetyl-6-aminohexanal as reaction product.

Given the reversibility of the co-transaminase activity (see example 5), the gene products of SEQ ID NOs: 7-12 accept N6-acetyl-6-aminohexanal as substrate forming N6-acetyl-1,6-diaminohexane.

Example 12

Enzyme Activity of Carboxylate Reductase Using Adipate Semialdehyde as Substrate and Forming Hexanedial

The N-terminal His-tagged carboxylate reductase of SEQ ID NO 6 (see Example 7 and FIG. 9) was assayed using adipate semialdehyde as substrate. The enzyme activity assay was performed in triplicate in a buffer composed of a final concentration of 50 mM HEPES buffer (pH=7.5), 2 mM adipate semialdehyde, 10 mM MgCl₂, mM ATP and 1 mM NADPH. The enzyme activity assay reaction was initiated by adding purified carboxylate reductase and phosphopantetheine transferase or the empty vector control to the assay buffer containing the adipate semialdehyde and then incubated at room temperature for 20 min. The consumption of NADPH was monitored by absorbance at 340 nm. The enzyme only control without adipate semialdehyde demonstrated low base line consumption of NADPH. See FIG. 11.

The gene product of SEQ ID NO: 6, enhanced by the gene product of sfp, accepted adipate semialdehyde as substrate as confirmed against the empty vector control (see FIG. 15) and synthesized hexanedial.

Example 13

Enzyme Activity of CYP153 Monooxygenase Using Hexanoate as Substrate in Forming 6-hydroxyhexanoate

A sequence encoding a HIS tag was added to the Polaromonas sp. JS666, Mycobacterium sp. HXN-1500 and Mycobacterium austroafricanum genes respectively encoding (1) the monooxygenases (SEQ ID NOs: 13-15), (2) the associated ferredoxin reductase partner (SEQ ID NOs: 16-17) and the specie's ferredoxin (SEQ ID NOs: 18-19). For the Mycobacterium austroafricanum monooxygenase, Mycobacterium sp. HXN-1500 oxidoreductase and ferredoxin partners were used. The three modified protein partners were cloned into a pgBlue expression vector under a hybrid pTac promoter. Each expression vector was transformed into a BL21[DE3] E. coli host. Each resulting recombinant E. coli strain were cultivated at 37° C. in a 500 mL shake flask culture containing 50 mL LB media and antibiotic selection pressure. Each culture was induced for 24h at 28° C. using 1 mM IPTG.

The pellet from each induced shake flask culture was harvested via centrifugation. Each pellet was resuspended and the cells made permeable using Y-per™ solution (ThermoScientific, Rockford, Ill.) at room temperature for 20 min. The permeabilized cells were held at 0° C. in the Y-per™ solution.

Enzyme activity assays were performed in a buffer composed of a final concentration of 25 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH=7.8), 1.7 mM MgSO₄, 2.5 mM NADPH and 30 mM hexanoate. Each enzyme activity assay reaction was initiated by adding a fixed mass of wet cell weight of permeabilized cells suspended in the Y-per™ solution to the assay buffer containing the heptanoate and then incubated at 28° C. for 24 h, with shaking at 1400 rpm in a heating block shaker. The formation of 7-hydroxyheptanoate was quantified via LC-MS.

The monooxygenase gene products of SEQ ID NO 13-15 along with reductase and ferredoxin partners, accepted hexanoate as substrate as confirmed against the empty vector control (see FIG. 22) and synthesized 6-hydroxyhexanoate as reaction product.

Other Embodiments

It is to be understood that while the invention has been described in conjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoing description is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of the following claims. 

1.-40. (canceled)
 41. A recombinant host comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding: (i) either a β-ketothiolase or an acetyl-CoA carboxylase and an acetoacetyl-CoA synthase, (ii) a 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase or a 3-oxoacyl-CoA reductase, (iii) an enoyl-CoA hydratase, and (iv) a trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase, wherein the host produces hexanoyl-CoA.
 42. The recombinant host of claim 41, wherein the host further comprises either (1) an exogenous thioesterase, or (2) an exogenous aldehyde dehydrogenase and an exogenous butanal dehydrogenase, and wherein the host produces hexanoate.
 43. The recombinant host of claim 42, wherein the host further comprises one or more of the following exogenous enzymes: a monooxygenase, an alcohol dehydrogenase, an aldehyde dehydrogenase, a 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase, a 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase, a 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, a 6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase, and a 7-oxoheptanoate dehydrogenase, and wherein the host produces adipic acid.
 44. The recombinant host of claim 42, wherein the host further comprises an exogenous monooxygenase and the host produces adipic acid.
 45. The recombinant host of claim 42, wherein the host further comprises: (1) an exogenous monooxygenase, (2) an exogenous enzyme selected from the group consisting of an alcohol dehydrogenase, a 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase, a 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase, and a 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, and (3) an exogenous enzyme selected from the group consisting of a 6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase, an aldehyde dehydrogenase, and a 7-oxoheptanoate dehydrogenase, and wherein the host produces adipic acid.
 46. The recombinant host of claim 42, wherein the host further comprises: (1) an exogenous monooxygenase, (2) an exogenous alcohol dehydrogenase, and (3) an exogenous 6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase or 7-oxoheptanoate dehydrogenase, and wherein the host produces adipic acid.
 47. The recombinant host of claim 42, wherein the host further comprises: (1) an exogenous monooxygenase, (2) an exogenous 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase, and (3) an exogenous aldehyde dehydrogenase, and wherein the host produces adipic acid.
 48. The recombinant host of claim 42, wherein the host further comprises two or more of the following exogenous enzymes: a monooxygenase, a transaminase, a 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase, a 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase, a 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, and an alcohol dehydrogenase, and wherein the host produces 6-aminohexanoate.
 49. The recombinant host of claim 42, wherein the host further comprises: (1) an exogenous monooxygenase, (2) an exogenous enzyme selected from the group consisting of an alcohol dehydrogenase, a 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase, a 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase, and a 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, and (3) an exogenous co-transaminase, and wherein the host produces 6-aminohexanoate.
 50. The recombinant host of claim 48, wherein the host further comprises an exogenous lactamase and the host produces caprolactam.
 51. The recombinant host of claim 42, wherein the host further comprises an exogenous monooxygenase and the host produces 6-hydroxyhexanoate.
 52. The recombinant host of claim 48, wherein the host further comprises two or more of the following exogenous enzymes: a carboxylate reductase, a ω-transaminase, a deacylase, an N-acetyltransferase, and an alcohol dehydrogenase, and wherein the host produces hexamethylenediamine.
 53. The recombinant host of claim 48, wherein the host further comprises an exogenous carboxylate reductase and an exogenous ω-transaminase, and wherein the host produces hexamethylenediamine.
 54. The recombinant host of claim 48, wherein the host further comprises: (1) an exogenous N-acetyltransferase, (2) an exogenous carboxylate reductase, (3) an exogenous ω-transaminase, and (4) an exogenous acetylputrescine deacylase, wherein the host produces hexamethylenediamine.
 55. The recombinant host of claim 51, wherein the host further comprises: (1) an exogenous carboxylate reductase, (2) an exogenous co-transaminase, (3) an exogenous alcohol dehydrogenase, and wherein the host produces hexamethylenediamine.
 56. The recombinant host of claim 51, wherein the host further comprises an exogenous carboxylate reductase and an exogenous alcohol dehydrogenase, and wherein the host produces 1,6-hexanediol.
 57. The recombinant host of claim 41, wherein the host further comprises one or more of the following attenuated enzymes: a polyhydroxyalkanoate synthase, an acetyl-CoA thioesterase, a phosphotransacetylase forming acetate, an acetate kinase, a lactate dehydrogenase, a menaquinol-fumarate oxidoreductase, a 2-oxoacid decarboxylase producing isobutanol, an alcohol dehydrogenase forming ethanol, a triose phosphate isomerase, a pyruvate decarboxylase, a glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, NADH-consuming transhydrogenase, an NADH-specific glutamate dehydrogenase, a NADH/NADPH-utilizing glutamate dehydrogenase, a pimeloyl-CoA dehydrogenase, an acyl-CoA dehydrogenase, a butaryl-CoA dehydrogenase, and an adipyl-CoA synthetase.
 58. The recombinant host of claim 41, wherein the host further comprises one or more of the following enzymes: an acetyl-CoA synthetase, a 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, a transketolase, a puridine nucleotide transhydrogenase, a glyceraldehyde-3P-dehydrogenase, a malic enzyme, a glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, a glucose dehydrogenase, a fructose 1,6 diphosphatase, a L-alanine dehydrogenase, a L-glutamate dehydrogenase, a formate dehydrogenase, a L-glutamine synthetase, a diamine transporter, a dicarboxylate transporter, and a multidrug transporter.
 59. The recombinant host of claim 41, wherein the host is a prokaryote.
 60. The recombinant host of claim 59, wherein the host is a bacterium selected from the group consisting of Escherichia coli, Clostridium ljungdahlii, Clostridium autoethanogenum, Clostridium kluyveri, Corynebacterium glutamicum, Cupriavidus necator, Cupriavidus metallidurans, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas oleavorans, Delftia acidovorans, Bacillus subtillis, Lactobacillus delbrueckii, and Lactococcus lactis.
 61. The recombinant host of claim 41, wherein the host is a eukaryote.
 62. The recombinant host of claim 61, wherein the host is a filamentous fungus.
 63. The recombinant host of claim 62, wherein the host is Aspergillus niger.
 64. The recombinant host of claim 61, wherein the host is a yeast.
 65. The recombinant host of claim 64, wherein the host is a yeast selected from the group consisting of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia pastoris, Yarrowia lipolytica, Issathenkia orientalis, Debaryomyces hansenii, Arxula adenoinivorans, and Kluyveromyces lactis.
 66. The recombinant host of claim 41, wherein the β-ketothiolase is classified under EC 2.3.1.9, or encoded by atoB or phaA; wherein the acetyl-CoA carboxylase is classified under EC 6.4.1.2; wherein the acetoacetyl-CoA synthase is classified under EC 2.3.1.194; wherein the 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.1.1.35, or encoded by fadB; wherein the 3-oxoacyl-CoA reductase is classified under EC 1.1.1.100, or encoded by fabG; wherein the enoyl-CoA hydratase is classified under EC 4.2.1.17, or encoded by crt; or wherein the trans-2- enoyl-CoA reductase is classified under EC 1.3.1.44, or encoded by ter or tdter.
 67. The recombinant host of claim 42, wherein the thioesterase is classified under EC 3.1.2.—, or encoded by YciA, tesB or Acot13; wherein the aldehyde dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.2.1.4; or wherein the butanal dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.2.1.57.
 68. The recombinant host of claim 43, wherein the monooxygenase is classified under EC 1.14.15.1; wherein the alcohol dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.1.1.—(1, 2, 21, 184), or encoded by YMR318C or YqhD; wherein the 6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.2.1.63, or encoded by ChnE or ThnG; wherein the 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.1.1.258, or encoded by ChnD; wherein the aldehyde dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.2.1.3; wherein the 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.1.1.—, or encoded by cpnD; wherein the 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.1.1.—, or encoded by gabD; or wherein the 7-oxoheptanoate dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.2.1.—, or encoded by ThnG.
 69. The recombinant host of claim 48, wherein the monooxygenase is classified under EC 1.14.15.1; wherein the transaminase is classified under classified under EC 2.6.1.—(18, 19, 29, 48, 82); wherein the alcohol dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.1.1.—(1, 2, 21, 184), or encoded by YMR318C or YqhD; wherein the 6-hydroxyhexanoate dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.1.1.258, or encoded by ChnD; wherein the 5-hydroxypentanoate dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.1.1.—, or encoded by cpnD; or wherein the 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.1.1.—, or encoded by gabD.
 70. The recombinant host of claim 50, wherein the lactamase is classified under EC 3.5.2.—.
 71. The recombinant host of claim 51, wherein the monooxygenase is classified under EC 1.14.15.1.
 72. The recombinant host of claim 52, wherein the carboxylate reductase is classified under EC 1.2.99.6, or encoded by car, GriC or GriD; wherein the transaminase is classified under classified under EC 2.6.1.—(18, 19, 29, 48, 82); wherein the N-acetyltransferase is classified under EC 2.3.1.32; wherein the alcohol dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.1.1.—(1, 2, 21, 184), or encoded by YMR318C or YqhD; or wherein the deacylase is classified under EC 3.5.1.62.
 73. The recombinant host of claim 56, wherein the carboxylate reductase is classified under EC 1.2.99.6, or encoded by car, GriC or GriD; or wherein the alcohol dehydrogenase is classified under EC 1.1.1.—(1, 2, 21, 184), or encoded by YMR318C or YqhD. 